Neonatal neurobehavior associated with developmental changes from age 2 to 3 in very preterm infants.

OBJECTIVE: Understand how high-risk infants' development changes over time. Examine whether NICU Network Neurobehavioral Scale (NNNS) profiles are associated with decrements in developmental outcomes between ages 2 and 3 years in infants born very preterm. STUDY DESIGN: The Neonatal Outcomes for Very preterm Infants (NOVI) cohort is a multisite prospective study of 704 preterm infants born <30 weeks' gestation across nine university and VON affiliated NICUs. Data included infant neurobehavior measured by NNNS profiles at NICU discharge and the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development (BSID-III) at ages 2 and 3 years. Generalized estimating equations tested associations between NNNS profiles and BSID-III composite score changes between ages 2 and 3 years. RESULTS: The final study sample included 433 infants with mean gestational age of 27 weeks at birth. Infants with dysregulated NNNS profiles were more likely to have decreases in BSID-III Cognitive (OR = 2.66) and Language scores (OR = 2.53) from age 2 to 3 years compared to infants with more well-regulated neurobehavioral NNNS profiles. Further, infants with more well-regulated NNNS profiles were more likely to have increases in BSID-III Cognitive scores (OR = 2.03), rather than no change, compared to infants with dysregulated NNNS profiles. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: Prior to NICU discharge, NNNS neurobehavioral profiles identified infants at increased risk for developing later language and cognitive challenges. Findings suggests that neonatal neurobehavior provides a unique, clinically significant contribution to the evaluation of very preterm infants to inform treatment planning for the most vulnerable.

Developmental characteristics and accuracy of autism screening among two-year-old toddlers in the ECHO program.

BACKGROUND: The Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (M-CHAT) is a common pediatric screening tool with mixed accuracy findings. Prior evidence supports M-CHAT screening for developmental concerns, especially in toddlers born preterm. This study examined M-CHAT accuracy in a large, nationwide sample. METHODS: 3393 participants from the Environmental influences on Child Health Outcomes (ECHO) program were included. Harmonized M-CHAT (M-CHAT-H) results were compared with parent-reported autism diagnosis and autism-related characteristics to assess accuracy for term and preterm children, together and separately. Generalized estimating equations, clustering for ECHO cohort and controlling for demographic covariates, were used to examine associations between developmental and behavioral characteristics with M-CHAT-H accuracy. RESULTS: Sensitivity of the M-CHAT-H ranged from 36 to 60%; specificity ranged from 88 to 99%. Positive M-CHAT-H was associated with more developmental delays and behavior problems. Children with severe motor delays and more autism-related problems were more likely to have a false-negative M-CHAT-H. Children with fewer behavior problems and fewer autism-related concerns were more likely to have a false-positive screen. CONCLUSION: The M-CHAT-H accurately detects children at low risk for autism and children at increased risk with moderate accuracy. These findings support use of the M-CHAT-H in assessing autism risk and developmental and behavioral concerns in children. IMPACT: Previous literature regarding accuracy of the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (M-CHAT) is mixed but this study provides evidence that the M-CHAT performs well in detecting children at low risk for autism and consistently detects children with developmental delays and behavioral problems. The M-CHAT moderately detects children at increased risk for autism and remains a useful screening tool. This study examines M-CHAT accuracy in a large-scale, nationwide sample, examining associations between screening accuracy and developmental outcomes. These findings impact pediatric screening for autism, supporting continued use of the M-CHAT while further elucidating the factors associated with inaccurate screens.

Epigenetic associations in HPA axis genes related to bronchopulmonary dysplasia and antenatal steroids.

BACKGROUND: Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD), a common morbidity among very preterm infants, is associated with chronic disease and neurodevelopmental impairments. A hypothesized mechanism for these outcomes lies in altered glucocorticoid (GC) activity. We hypothesized that BPD and its treatments may result in epigenetic differences in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which is modulated by GC, and could be ascertained using an established GC risk score and DNA methylation (DNAm) of HPA axis genes. METHODS: DNAm was quantified from buccal tissue (ECHO-NOVI) and from neonatal blood spots (ELGAN ECHO) via the EPIC microarray. Prenatal maternal characteristics, pregnancy complication, and neonatal medical complication data were collected from medical record review and maternal interviews. RESULTS: The GC score was not associated with steroid exposure or BPD. However, six HPA genes involved in stress response regulation demonstrated differential methylation with antenatal steroid exposure; two CpGs within FKBP5 and POMC were differentially methylated with BPD severity. These findings were sex-specific in both cohorts; males had greater magnitude of differential methylation within these genes. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that BPD severity and antenatal steroids are associated with DNAm at some HPA genes in very preterm infants and the effects appear to be sex-, tissue-, and age-specific. IMPACT: This study addresses bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD), an important health outcome among preterm neonates, and interrogates a commonly studied pathway, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. The combination of BPD, the HPA axis, and epigenetic markers has not been previously reported. In this study, we found that BPD itself was not associated with epigenetic responses in the HPA axis in infants born very preterm; however, antenatal treatment with steroids was associated with epigenetic responses.

Contributions of prenatal risk factors and neonatal epigenetics to cognitive outcome in children born very preterm.

Children born less than 30 weeks gestational age (GA) are at high risk for neurodevelopmental delay compared to term peers. Prenatal risk factors and neonatal epigenetics could help identify preterm children at highest risk for poor cognitive outcomes. We aimed to understand the associations among cumulative prenatal risk, neonatal DNA methylation, and child cognitive ability at age 3 years, including whether DNA methylation mediates the association between prenatal risk and cognitive ability. We studied 379 neonates (54% male) born less than 30 weeks GA who had DNA methylation measured at neonatal intensive care unit discharge along with 3-year follow-up data. Cumulative prenatal risk was calculated from 24 risk factors obtained from maternal report and medical record and epigenome-wide neonatal DNA methylation was assayed from buccal swabs. At 3-year follow-up, child cognitive ability was assessed using the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development (third edition). Cumulative prenatal risk and DNA methylation at two cytosine-phosphate-guanines (CpGs) were uniquely associated with child cognitive ability. Using high-dimensional mediation analysis, we also identified differential methylation of 309 CpGs that mediated the association between cumulative prenatal risk and child cognitive ability. Many of the associated CpGs were located in genes (TNS3, TRAPPC4, MAD1L1, APBB2, DIP2C, TRAPPC9, DRD2) that have previously been associated with prenatal exposures and/or neurodevelopmental phenotypes. Our findings suggest a role for both prenatal risk factors and DNA methylation in explaining outcomes for children born preterm and suggest we should further study DNA methylation as a potential mechanism underlying the association between prenatal risk and child neurodevelopment. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Epigenome-wide association study identifies neonatal DNA methylation associated with two-year attention problems in children born very preterm.

Prior research has identified epigenetic predictors of attention problems in school-aged children but has not yet investigated these in young children, or children at elevated risk of attention problems due to preterm birth. The current study evaluated epigenome-wide associations between neonatal DNA methylation and attention problems at age 2 years in children born very preterm. Participants included 441 children from the Neonatal Neurobehavior and Outcomes in Very Preterm Infants (NOVI) Study, a multi-site study of infants born < 30 weeks gestational age. DNA methylation was measured from buccal swabs collected at NICU discharge using the Illumina MethylationEPIC Bead Array. Attention problems were assessed at 2 years of adjusted age using the attention problems subscale of the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL). After adjustment for multiple testing, DNA methylation at 33 CpG sites was associated with child attention problems. Differentially methylated CpG sites were located in genes previously linked to physical and mental health, including several genes associated with ADHD in prior epigenome-wide and genome-wide association studies. Several CpG sites were located in genes previously linked to exposure to prenatal risk factors in the NOVI sample. Neonatal epigenetics measured at NICU discharge could be useful in identifying preterm children at risk for long-term attention problems and related psychiatric disorders, who could benefit from early prevention and intervention efforts.

Neurodevelopmental and behavioral outcomes of very preterm infants: latent profile analysis in the Environmental influences on Child Health Outcomes (ECHO) Program.

BACKGROUND: Very preterm infants are at high risk for neurodevelopmental impairments. We used a child-centered approach (latent profile analysis [LPA]) to describe 2-year neurobehavioral profiles for very preterm infants based on cognitive, motor, and behavioral outcomes. We hypothesized that distinct outcome profiles would differ in the severity and co-occurrence of neurodevelopmental and behavioral impairment. METHODS: We studied children born <33 weeks' gestation from the Environmental influences on Child Health Outcomes Program with at least one neurobehavioral assessment at age 2 (Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, Child Behavior Checklist, Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers, cerebral palsy diagnosis). We applied LPA to identify subgroups of children with different patterns of outcomes. RESULTS: In 2036 children (52% male; 48% female), we found four distinct neurobehavioral profiles. Most children (~85%) were categorized into one of two profiles characterized by no/mild neurodevelopmental delay and a low prevalence of behavioral problems. Fewer children (~15%) fell into one of two profiles characterized by severe neurodevelopmental impairments. One profile consisted of children (5%) with co-occurring neurodevelopmental impairment and behavioral problems. CONCLUSION: Child-centered approaches provide a comprehensive, parsimonious description of neurodevelopment following preterm birth and can be useful for clinical and research purposes. IMPACT: Most research on outcomes for children born very preterm have reported rates of impairment in single domains. Child-centered approaches describe profiles of children with unique combinations of cognitive, motor, and behavioral strengths and weaknesses. We capitalized on data from the nationwide Environmental influences on Child Health Outcomes Program to examine these profiles in a large sample of children born <33 weeks gestational age. We found four distinct neurobehavioral profiles consisting of different combinations of cognitive, motor, and behavioral characteristics. This information could aid in the development of clinical interventions that target different profiles of children with unique developmental needs.

Two-Year Autism Risk Screening and 3-Year Developmental Outcomes in Very Preterm Infants.

Importance: Use of the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers, Revised With Follow-Up, a 2-stage parent-report autism risk screening tool, has been questioned due to reports of poor sensitivity and specificity. How this measure captures developmental delays for very preterm infants may provide support for continued use in pediatric care settings. Objective: To determine whether autism risk screening with the 2-stage parent-report autism risk screening tool at age 2 years is associated with behavioral and developmental outcomes at age 3 in very preterm infants. Design, Setting, and Participants: Neonatal Neurobehavior and Outcomes for Very Preterm Infants was a longitudinal, multisite cohort study. Enrollment occurred April 2014 to June 2016, and analyses were conducted from November 2022 to May 2023. Data were collected across 9 university-affiliated neonatal intensive care units (NICUs). Inclusion criteria were infants born less than 30 weeks' gestational age, a parent who could read and speak English and/or Spanish, and residence within 3 hours of the NICU and follow-up clinic. Exposures: Prematurity and use of the 2-stage parent-report autism risk screening tool at age 2 years. Main Outcomes and Measures: Outcomes include cognitive, language, motor composites on Bayley Scales for Infant and Toddler Development, third edition (Bayley-III) and internalizing, externalizing, total problems, and pervasive developmental disorder (PDD) subscale on the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) at age 3 years. Generalized estimating equations tested associations between the 2-stage parent-report autism risk screening tool and outcomes, adjusting for covariates. Results: A total of 467 children (mean [SD] gestational age, 27.1 [1.8] weeks; 243 male [52%]) were screened with the 2-stage parent-report autism risk screening tool at age 2 years, and outcome data at age 3 years were included in analyses. Mean (SD) maternal age at birth was 29 (6) years. A total of 51 children (10.9%) screened positive on the 2-stage parent-report autism risk screening tool at age 2 years. Children with positive screening results were more likely to have Bayley-III composites of 84 or less on cognitive (adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 4.03; 95% CI, 1.65-9.81), language (aOR, 5.38; 95% CI, 2.43-11.93), and motor (aOR, 4.74; 95% CI, 2.19-10.25) composites and more likely to have CBCL scores of 64 or higher on internalizing (aOR, 4.83; 95% CI, 1.88-12.44), externalizing (aOR, 2.69; 95% CI, 1.09-6.61), and PDD (aOR, 3.77; 95% CI, 1.72-8.28) scales. Conclusions and Relevance: Results suggest that the 2-stage parent-report autism risk screening tool administered at age 2 years was a meaningful screen for developmental delays in very preterm infants, with serious delays detected at age 3 years.

Agreement Between Two Behavioral Rating Scales in Preschoolers Born Very Preterm.

OBJECTIVE: Broadband parent rating scales are commonly used to assess behavioral problems in children. Multiple rating scales are available, yet agreement between them is not well-understood. The objective of this study was to evaluate agreement between the Behavior Assessment System for Children, Third Edition (BASC-3), and Child Behavior Checklist 1.5 to 5 years (CBCL) in a sample of children born very preterm. METHOD: We assessed 73 children born < 30 weeks' gestational age whose caregivers completed the BASC-3 and CBCL at age 4. We examined correlations, within-person differences, and agreement in clinical categorization for all corresponding subscales and composites. RESULTS: Comparable subscales on the BASC-3 and CBCL were significantly correlated, albeit to differing magnitudes. Subscales indexing hyperactivity and attention problems were the most comparable across the 2 measures, evidenced by strong correlations and few to no differences in mean T-scores. Composite scores indexing internalizing, externalizing, and total problems were also strongly correlated, and there were no differences in the mean T-scores for externalizing or total problems across measures. Agreement in clinical classifications were weak to moderate, though again, the highest agreement was found for hyperactivity, attention, externalizing, and total problems. CONCLUSION: Agreement between BASC-3 and CBCL subscales was weak to moderate, with the exception of subscales related to attention and hyperactivity, as well as composite scores indicating overall behavior problems. Researchers and clinicians should consider these discrepancies when interpreting the results of behavior rating scales with preschool children because conclusions could differ based on the assessment that is used.

Epigenetic age acceleration, neonatal morbidities, and neurobehavioral profiles in infants born very preterm.

Epigenetic age acceleration is a risk factor for chronic diseases of ageing and may reflect aspects of biological ageing. However, few studies have examined epigenetic ageing during the early neonatal period in preterm infants, who are at heightened risk of developmental problems. We examined relationships between neonatal age acceleration, neonatal morbidities, and neurobehavioral domains among very preterm (<30 weeks gestation) infants to characterize whether infants with early morbidities or different neurobehavioral characteristics had accelerated or decelerated epigenetic ageing. This study uses data from the Neonatal Neurobehavior and Outcomes in Very Preterm Infants (NOVI) study, restricted to infants with data on variables assessed (n = 519). We used generalized estimating equations to test for differences in age acceleration associated with severe neonatal medical morbidities and neurobehavioral characteristics. We found that infants with neonatal morbidities, in particular, bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD), had accelerated epigenetic age - and some evidence that infants with hypertonicity and asymmetric reflexes had increased and decreased age acceleration, respectively. Adjustment for gestational age attenuated some associations, suggesting that the relationships observed may be driven by the duration of gestation. Our most robust finding shows that very preterm infants with neonatal morbidities (BPD in particular) exhibit age acceleration, but most neonatal neurobehavioral characteristics and morbidities are not associated with early life age acceleration. Lower gestational age at birth may be an upstream factor driving these associations.

Maternal perceived stress and infant behavior during the COVID-19 pandemic.

BACKGROUND: Maternal stress has negative consequences on infant behavioral development, and COVID-19 presented uniquely stressful situations to mothers of infants born during the pandemic. We hypothesized that mothers with higher levels of perceived stress during the pandemic would report higher levels of infant regulatory problems including crying and interrupted sleep patterns. METHODS: As part 6 sites of a longitudinal study, mothers of infants born during the pandemic completed the Perceived Stress Scale, the Brief Infant Sleep Questionnaire, and an Infant Crying survey at 6 (n = 433) and 12 (n = 344) months of infant age. RESULTS: Maternal perceived stress, which remained consistent at 6 and 12 months of infant age, was significantly positively correlated with time taken to settle infants. Although maternal perceived stress was not correlated with uninterrupted sleep length, time taken to put the infant to sleep was correlated. Perceived stress was also correlated with the amount of infant crying and fussiness reported at 6 months. CONCLUSIONS: Mothers who reported higher levels of perceived stress during the pandemic reported higher levels of regulatory problems, specifically at 6 months. Examining how varying levels of maternal stress and infant behaviors relate to overall infant developmental status over time is an important next step. IMPACT: Women giving birth during the COVID-19 pandemic who reported higher levels of stress on the Perceived Stress Scale also reported higher levels of infant fussiness and crying at 6 months old, and more disruptive sleep patterns in their infants at 6 months and 12 months old. Sleeping problems and excessive crying in infancy are two regulatory problems that are known risk factors for emotional and behavioral issues in later childhood. This paper is one of the first studies highlighting the associations between maternal stress and infant behaviors during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Neurobehavioral and Medical Correlates of Autism Screening: 2-Year Outcomes for Infants Born Very Preterm.

OBJECTIVE: To identify neonatal characteristics and 2-year neurodevelopmental outcomes associated with positive screening for risk of autism. STUDY DESIGN: Nine university-affiliated neonatal intensive care units (NICUs) enrolled infants born at <30 weeks of gestation. Infants underwent the NICU Network Neurobehavioral Scale examination before discharge and the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, Third Edition, the Child Behavior Checklist, and the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers, revised with follow-up (M-CHAT-R/F) at 2 years of corrected age. Generalized estimating equations examined associations between M-CHAT-R/F, neurobehavioral test results, and neonatal medical morbidities. RESULTS: At 2 years of corrected age, data were available for 466 of 744 enrolled infants without cerebral palsy. Infants with hypoaroused NICU Network Neurobehavioral Scale profiles were more likely to screen M-CHAT-R/F-positive (OR 2.76, 95% CI 1.38-5.54). Infants with ≥2 medical morbidities also were more likely to screen positive (OR 2.65, 95% CI 1.27-5.54). Children with positive M-CHAT-R/F scores had lower Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, Third Edition, Cognitive (t [451] = 5.43, P < .001, d = 0.82), Language (t [53.49] = 7.82, P < .001, d = 1.18), and Motor (t [451] = 7.98, P < .001, d = 1.21) composite scores and significantly greater Child Behavior Checklist Internalizing (t [457] -6.19, P < .001, d = -0.93) and Externalizing (t [57.87] = -5.62, P < .001, d = -0.84) scores. CONCLUSIONS: Positive M-CHAT-R/F screens at 2 years of corrected age were associated with neonatal medical morbidities and neurobehavioral examinations as well as toddler developmental and behavioral outcomes. These findings demonstrate the potential utility of the M-CHAT-R/F as a global developmental screener in infants born very preterm, regardless of whether there is a later autism diagnosis.

Maternal Prenatal Risk Phenotypes and Neurobehavioral Outcomes among Infants Born Very Preterm.

OBJECTIVE: To assess whether prenatal risk phenotypes are associated with neurobehavioral impairment for children born <30 weeks of gestation at discharge from the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) and at 24-month follow-up. STUDY DESIGN: We studied infants from the Neonatal Neurobehavior and Outcomes in Very Preterm Infants (NOVI) study, a multisite investigation of infants born <30 weeks of gestation. There were 704 newborns enrolled in the NOVI study; of these, 679 (96%) had neonatal neurobehavioral data and 556 (79%) had 24-month follow-up data. Maternal prenatal phenotypes (physical and psychological risk groups) were characterized from 24 physical and psychological health risk factors. Neurobehavior was assessed at NICU discharge using the NICU Network Neurobehavioral Scales and at 2-year follow-up using the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development and the Child Behavior Checklist. RESULTS: Children born to mothers in the psychological risk group were at increased risk for dysregulated neonatal neurobehavior (OR, 2.04; 95% CI, 1.08-3.87) at NICU discharge, and for severe motor delay (OR, 3.80; 95% CI, 1.48-9.75), and clinically significant externalizing problems (OR, 2.54; 95% CI, 1.15-5.56) at age 24 months, compared with children born to mothers in the low-risk group. Children born to mothers in the physical risk group were more likely to have severe motor delay (OR, 2.70; 95% CI, 1.07-6.85) compared with the low-risk group. CONCLUSIONS: High-risk maternal prenatal phenotypes were associated with neurobehavioral impairment for children born very preterm. This information could identify newborns at risk for adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes.

Risk Factors for Postpartum Depression and Severe Distress among Mothers of Very Preterm Infants at NICU Discharge.

OBJECTIVE: To identify psychological, medical, and socioenvironmental risk factors for maternal postpartum depression (PPD) and severe psychological distress (SPD) at intensive care nursery discharge among mothers of very preterm infants. STUDY DESIGN: We studied 562 self-identified mothers of 641 infants born <30 weeks who were enrolled in the Neonatal Neurobehavior and Outcomes in Very Preterm Infants Study (NOVI) conducted in nine university-affiliated intensive care nurseries. Enrollment interviews collected socioenvironmental data, depression, and anxiety diagnoses prior to and during the study pregnancy. Standardized medical record reviews ascertained prenatal substance use, maternal and neonatal medical complications. The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale and Brief Symptom Inventory were administered at nursery discharge to screen for PPD and SPD symptoms, respectively. RESULTS: Unadjusted analyses indicated mothers with positive screens for depression (n = 76, 13.5%) or severe distress (n = 102, 18.1%) had more prevalent prepregnancy/prenatal depression/anxiety, and their infants were born at younger gestational ages, with more prevalent bronchopulmonary dysplasia, and discharge after 40 weeks postmenstrual age. In multivariable analyses, prior depression or anxiety was associated with positive screens for PPD (risk ratio [RR]: 1.6, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.1-2.2) and severe distress (RR: 1.6, 95% CI: 1.1-2.2). Mothers of male infants had more prevalent depression risk (RR: 1.7, 95% CI: 1.1-2.4), and prenatal marijuana use was associated with severe distress risk (RR: 1.9, 95% CI: 1.1-2.9). Socioenvironmental and obstetric adversities were not significant after accounting for prior depression/anxiety, marijuana use, and infant medical complications. CONCLUSION: Among mothers of very preterm newborns, these multicenter findings extend others' previous work by identifying additional indicators of risk for PPD and SPD associated with a history of depression, anxiety, prenatal marijuana use, and severe neonatal illness. Findings could inform designs for continuous screening and targeted interventions for PPD and distress risk indicators from the preconception period onward. KEY POINTS: · Preconceptional and prenatal screening for postpartum depression and severe distress may inform care.. · Prior depression, anxiety, and neonatal complications predicted severe distress and depression symptoms at NICU discharge.. · Readily identifiable risk factors warrant continuous NICU screening and targeted interventions to improve outcomes..

Assessment of Psychosocial and Neonatal Risk Factors for Trajectories of Behavioral Dysregulation Among Young Children From 18 to 72 Months of Age.

Importance: Emotional and behavioral dysregulation during early childhood are associated with severe psychiatric, behavioral, and cognitive disorders through adulthood. Identifying the earliest antecedents of persisting emotional and behavioral dysregulation can inform risk detection practices and targeted interventions to promote adaptive developmental trajectories among at-risk children. Objective: To characterize children's emotional and behavioral regulation trajectories and examine risk factors associated with persisting dysregulation across early childhood. Design, Setting, and Participants: This cohort study examined data from 20 United States cohorts participating in Environmental influences on Child Health Outcomes, which included 3934 mother-child pairs (singleton births) from 1990 to 2019. Statistical analysis was performed from January to August 2022. Exposures: Standardized self-reports and medical data ascertained maternal, child, and environmental characteristics, including prenatal substance exposures, preterm birth, and multiple psychosocial adversities. Main Outcomes and Measures: Child Behavior Checklist caregiver reports at 18 to 72 months of age, with Dysregulation Profile (CBCL-DP = sum of anxiety/depression, attention, and aggression). Results: The sample included 3934 mother-child pairs studied at 18 to 72 months. Among the mothers, 718 (18.7%) were Hispanic, 275 (7.2%) were non-Hispanic Asian, 1220 (31.8%) were non-Hispanic Black, 1412 (36.9%) were non-Hispanic White; 3501 (89.7%) were at least 21 years of age at delivery. Among the children, 2093 (53.2%) were male, 1178 of 2143 with Psychosocial Adversity Index [PAI] data (55.0%) experienced multiple psychosocial adversities, 1148 (29.2%) were exposed prenatally to at least 1 psychoactive substance, and 3066 (80.2%) were term-born (≥37 weeks' gestation). Growth mixture modeling characterized a 3-class CBCL-DP trajectory model: high and increasing (2.3% [n = 89]), borderline and stable (12.3% [n = 479]), and low and decreasing (85.6% [n = 3366]). Children in high and borderline dysregulation trajectories had more prevalent maternal psychological challenges (29.4%-50.0%). Multinomial logistic regression analyses indicated that children born preterm were more likely to be in the high dysregulation trajectory (adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 2.76; 95% CI, 2.08-3.65; P < .001) or borderline dysregulation trajectory (aOR, 1.36; 95% CI, 1.06-1.76; P = .02) vs low dysregulation trajectory. High vs low dysregulation trajectories were less prevalent for girls compared with boys (aOR, 0.60; 95% CI, 0.36-1.01; P = .05) and children with lower PAI (aOR, 1.94; 95% CI, 1.51-2.49; P < .001). Combined increases in PAI and prenatal substance exposures were associated with increased odds of high vs borderline dysregulation (aOR, 1.28; 95% CI, 1.08-1.53; P = .006) and decreased odds of low vs high dysregulation (aOR, 0.77; 95% CI, 0.64-0.92; P = .005). Conclusions and Relevance: In this cohort study of behavioral dysregulation trajectories, associations were found with early risk factors. These findings may inform screening and diagnostic practices for addressing observed precursors of persisting dysregulation as they emerge among at-risk children.

Clinic-Based Financial Coaching and Missed Pediatric Preventive Care: A Randomized Trial.

OBJECTIVES: Poverty is a common root cause of poor health and disrupts medical care. Clinically embedded antipoverty programs that address financial stressors may prevent missed visits and improve show rates. This pilot study evaluated the impact of clinic-based financial coaching on adherence to recommended preventive care pediatric visits and vaccinations in the first 6 months of life. METHODS: In this community-partnered randomized controlled trial comparing clinic-based financial coaching to usual care among low-income parent-infant dyads attending pediatric preventive care visits, we examined the impact of the longitudinal financial intervention delivered by trained coaches addressing parent-identified, strengths-based financial goals (employment, savings, public benefits enrollment, etc.). We also examined social needs screening and resource referral on rates of missed preventive care pediatric visits and vaccinations through the 6-month well-child visit. RESULTS: Eighty-one parent-infant dyads were randomized (35 intervention, 46 control); nearly all parents were mothers and more than one-half were Latina. The rate of missed visits among those randomized to clinic-based financial coaching was half that of controls (0.46 vs 1.07 missed of 4 recommended visits; mean difference, 0.61 visits missed; P = .01). Intervention participants were more likely to have up-to-date immunizations each visit (relative risk, 1.26; P = .01) with fewer missed vaccinations by the end of the 6-month preventive care visit period (2.52 vs 3.8 missed vaccinations; P = .002). CONCLUSIONS: In this pilot randomized trial, a medical-financial partnership embedding financial coaching within pediatric primary care improved low-income families' adherence to recommended visits and vaccinations. Clinic-based financial coaching may improve care continuity and quality in the medical home.

Acoustic Cry Characteristics in Preterm Infants and Developmental and Behavioral Outcomes at 2 Years of Age.

Importance: Acoustic cry characteristics have been associated with severe medical problems in newborns. However, little is known about the utility of neonatal acoustic cry characteristics in the prediction of long-term outcomes of very preterm infants. Objectives: To evaluate whether acoustic characteristics of infant cry at neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) discharge are associated with behavioral and developmental outcomes at age 2 years in infants born very preterm. Design, Setting, and Participants: Infants born less than 30 weeks postmenstrual age (PMA) were enrolled from April 2014 through June 2016 as part of a multicenter (9 US university affiliated NICUs) cohort study and followed to adjusted age 2 years. Reported analyses began on September 2021. Data were analyzed from September 2021 to September 2022. Exposures: The primary exposure was premature birth (<30 weeks PMA). Main Outcomes and Measures: Cries were recorded during a neurobehavioral examination administered during the week of NICU discharge. Cry episodes were analyzed using a previously published computerized system to characterize cry acoustics. Year-2 outcomes included the Bayley-III Composite scores, Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) and the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (M-CHAT R/F), dichotomized using clinically significant cutoffs (<85 on Bayley Language, Cognitive and/or Motor Composite scores, T-score >63 on the CBCL Internalizing, Externalizing and/or Total Problem Scales and total M-CHAT R/F score >2). Results: Analyzed infants (363 participants) were primarily male (202 participants [55.65%]) and had a mean [SD] gestational age of 27.08 [1.95] weeks). Cross-validated random forest models revealed that cry acoustics were associated with 2-year outcomes. Tests of diagnostic odds ratios (DOR) revealed that infants who exhibited total problem behavior CBCL scores greater than 63 at age 2 years were 3.3 times more likely (95% CI, 1.44-7.49) to be identified as so by random forest model estimates relative to other infants (scores ≤63); this association was robust to adjustment for family-wise type-I error rates and covariate measures. Similar associations were observed for internalizing (DOR, 2.39; 95% CI, 1.04-5.47) and externalizing (DOR, 2.25; 95% CI, 1.12-4.54) scores on the CBCL, clinically significant language (DOR, 1.71; 95% CI, 1.10-2.67) and cognitive (DOR, 1.70; 95% CI, 1.00-2.88) scores on the Bayley-III, and a positive autism screen on the M-CHAT (DOR, 1.91; 95% CI, 1.05-3.44). Conclusions and Relevance: In this cohort study of preterm infants, findings pointed to the potential use of acoustic cry characteristics in the early identification of risk for long-term developmental and behavioral deficits.

Prenatal and perinatal factors associated with neonatal neurobehavioral profiles in the ECHO Program.

BACKGROUND: Single-cohort studies have identified distinct neurobehavioral profiles that are associated with prenatal and neonatal factors based on the NICU Network Neurobehavioral Scale (NNNS). We examined socioeconomic, medical, and substance use variables as predictors of NNNS profiles in a multi-cohort study of preterm and term-born infants with different perinatal exposures. METHODS: We studied 1112 infants with a neonatal NNNS exam from the Environmental influences on Child Health Outcomes (ECHO) consortium. We used latent profile analysis to characterize infant neurobehavioral profiles and generalized estimating equations to determine predictors of NNNS profiles. RESULTS: Six distinct neonatal neurobehavioral profiles were identified, including two dysregulated profiles: a hypo-aroused profile (16%) characterized by lethargy, hypotonicity, and nonoptimal reflexes; and a hyper-aroused profile (6%) characterized by high arousal, excitability, and stress, with low regulation and poor movement quality. Infants in the hypo-aroused profile were more likely to be male, have younger mothers, and have mothers who were depressed prenatally. Infants in the hyper-aroused profile were more likely to be Hispanic/Latino and have mothers who were depressed or used tobacco prenatally. CONCLUSIONS: We identified two dysregulated neurobehavioral profiles with distinct perinatal antecedents. Further understanding of their etiology could inform targeted interventions to promote positive developmental outcomes. IMPACT: Prior research on predictors of neonatal neurobehavior have included single-cohort studies, which limits generalizability of findings. In a multi-cohort study of preterm and term-born infants, we found six distinct neonatal neurobehavioral profiles, with two profiles being identified as dysregulated. Hypo- and hyper-aroused neurobehavioral profiles had distinct perinatal antecedents. Understanding perinatal factors associated with dysregulated neurobehavior could help promote positive developmental outcomes.

Bronchopulmonary dysplasia and neurobehavioural outcomes at birth and 2 years in infants born before 30 weeks.

OBJECTIVE: To identify neurobehavioural risks in preterm infants with bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) prior to hospital discharge. DESIGN AND PATIENTS: Longitudinal study of 676 newborns born before 30 weeks of gestation. SETTING: Nine university NICUs affiliated with six universities. All were Vermont Oxford Network (VON) participants. PATIENTS AND INTERVENTIONS: Infants were enrolled in the Neonatal Neurobehavior and Outcomes in Very Preterm Infants Study from April 2014 to June 2016. Prospective medical record reviews, VON definitions and criteria, and maternal interviews were used to collect maternal and neonatal medical variables and socioenvironmental data. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: NICU Network Neurobehavioral Scale (NNNS) at the time of hospital discharge; Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, Third Edition (Bayley-III) and Gross Motor Function Classification System at 2 years' corrected age. RESULTS: Infants with moderate/severe BPD were less attentive (Wald χ2 9.68, p=0.008), more lethargic (Wald χ2 9.91, p=0.007), with increased non-optimal reflexes (Wald χ2 7.37, p=0.025). Infants with moderate/severe BPD were more likely to have Bayley-III language and motor scores <85 (adjusted OR (aOR) 1.74, 95% CI 1.06 to 2.85, and aOR 2.06, 95% CI 1.10 to 3.85). Infants with both moderate/severe and mild BPD were more likely to have a cerebral palsy diagnosis (aOR 2.96, 95% CI 1.34 to 6.54, and aOR 2.81, 95% CI 1.32 to 5.99). CONCLUSIONS: BPD severity presents risks for poor neurodevelopment at NICU discharge and at age 2 years. Early identification of poorly regulated behaviour can provide critical information for early preventive and targeted interventions with potential to improve long-term outcomes.

How do pediatric urology fellows learn outside of direct patient care? A qualitative study.

BACKGROUND: A large proportion of time during pediatric urology fellowship training is focused on surgical skill development. While fellows begin their fellowship training with some knowledge of pediatric urology from residency, they rely on self-directed learning to expand their knowledge base. OBJECTIVE: To assess how pediatric urology fellows learn about their field outside of direct patient care experiences. Additionally, we were interested in how the pandemic affected fellows self-directed learning. METHODS: First and second year pediatric urology fellows at Accreditation Council of Graduate Medical Education (ACGME)-accredited programs were asked to participate in the study. Individual virtual interviews were conducted and transcribed. Each transcript was coded shortly after transcription. Constructivist grounded theory was used in the data collection and analysis. As interviews progressed, a constant comparative analysis was used iteratively to generate themes. RESULTS: A convenience sample of thirteen fellows from programs across the U.S. agreed to participate; eight were male and five were female. The following four themes emerged from the interviews: most learning in fellowship is self-directed, fellows are not the target audience for didactics, fellows have little independent study time, and there is a lack of organization and guidance for formal didactics (Summary Table). Additionally, we found that teleconferences were used for the majority of teaching after the start of the coronavirus pandemic. CONCLUSION: Fellows in pediatric urology programs are independent learners who understand the need for self-directed learning outside of the setting of formal didactics in fellowship. However, many lack appropriate time, guidance and/or mentorship to facilitate self-directed learning. We identified a need for more structure in pediatric urology fellowship clinical didactics. Videoconferencing software may enable the creation of a national pediatric urology fellowship curriculum.

Geotemporal analysis of perinatal care changes and maternal mental health: an example from the COVID-19 pandemic.

Our primary objective was to document COVID-19 induced changes to perinatal care across the USA and examine the implication of these changes for maternal mental health. We performed an observational cross-sectional study with convenience sampling using direct patient reports from 1918 postpartum and 3868 pregnant individuals collected between April 2020 and December 2020 from 10 states across the USA. We leverage a subgroup of these participants who gave birth prior to March 2020 to estimate the pre-pandemic prevalence of specific birthing practices as a comparison. Our primary analyses describe the prevalence and timing of perinatal care changes, compare perinatal care changes depending on when and where individuals gave birth, and assess the linkage between perinatal care alterations and maternal anxiety and depressive symptoms. Seventy-eight percent of pregnant participants and 63% of postpartum participants reported at least one change to their perinatal care between March and August 2020. However, the prevalence and nature of specific perinatal care changes occurred unevenly over time and across geographic locations. The separation of infants and mothers immediately after birth and the cancelation of prenatal visits were associated with worsened depression and anxiety symptoms in mothers after controlling for sociodemographic factors, mental health history, number of pregnancy complications, and general stress about the COVID-19 pandemic. Our analyses reveal widespread changes to perinatal care across the US that fluctuated depending on where and when individuals gave birth. Disruptions to perinatal care may also exacerbate mental health concerns, so focused treatments that can mitigate the negative psychiatric sequelae of interrupted care are warranted.