An analysis of stressors and co-morbid mental health problems that contribute to youth's paths to substance-specific services.

Substance-specific services are tailored to address the inappropriate use of chemicals such as alcohol and marijuana. Unfortunately, few teens ever access such need-based services. This article explores the paths to substance-specific service use in a sample of urban adolescents who are public service sector users: a direct path from substance misuse and an indirect path from general mental health service use. Results indicate that even though a significant percentage of youths frequently consume substances and display negative use-related behaviors, few actually received substance-specific services. Contributors to the substance misuse path included youths' family substance dependence and environmental stressors. Contributors to the mental health services path were comorbid depression and substance misuse.

Reliability of the services assessment for children and adolescents.

OBJECTIVE: This study examined the test-retest reliability of a new instrument, the Services Assessment for Children and Adolescents (SACA), for children's use of mental health services. METHODS: A cross-sectional survey was undertaken at two sites. The St. Louis site used a volunteer sample recruited from mental health clinics and local schools. The Ventura County, California, site used a double-blind, community-based sample seeded with cases of service-using children. Participating families completed the SACA and were retested within four to 14 days. The reliability of service use items was calculated with use of the kappa statistic. RESULTS: The SACA- Parent Version had excellent test-retest reliability for both lifetime service use and previous 12-month use. The SACA also had good to excellent reliability when administered to children aged 11 and older for lifetime and 12-month use. Reliability figures for children aged nine and ten years were considerably lower for lifetime and 12-month use. The younger children's responses suggested that they were confused about some questions. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates that parents and older children can reliably report use of mental health services by using the SACA. The SACA can be used to collect currently unavailable information about use of mental health services.

Organizational context and provider perception as determinants of mental health service use.

This study refines and tests an individual client model of service use and contrasts it with a model of service provision based on gateway provider perspectives. Structural equation models demonstrate that provider variables account for more service use variation than client variables. The client model accounts for 24% of the variance in service use, while the provider model accounts for 55% of the variance. Youth self-reported mental health was not positively associated with increased services or with provider perception of youth mental health. The provider model demonstrates the critical role played by provider perceptions, which are influenced more by work environment than by client problems.

The Service Assessment for Children and Adolescents (SACA): adult and child reports.

OBJECTIVE: To describe differences in parent-child responses to the Service Assessment for Children and Adolescents (SACA). METHOD: Studies were done at UCLA and Washington University based on service-using and community subjects drawn from community households or public school student lists, respectively. Results are presented for 145 adult-youth pairs in which the youth was 11 or older. RESULTS: The SACA adult-youth correspondence for lifetime use of any services, inpatient services, outpatient services, and school services ranged from fair to excellent (kappa = 0.43-0.86, with most at 0.61 or greater). Similarly, the SACA showed a good to excellent correspondence for services that had been used in the preceding year (kappa = 0.45-0.77, with most greater than 0.50). The parent-youth correspondence for use of specific service settings in the above generic categories ranged from poor to excellent (kappa = 0.25-0.83, with half at 0.50 or greater). CONCLUSIONS: The SACA has better adult-youth correspondence than any service use questionnaire with published data, indicating that both adult and youth reports are not needed for all research on mental health services. This is especially encouraging news for researchers working with high-risk youth populations, in which a parent figure is often not available.

Youths' access to mental health services: the role of providers' training, resource connectivity, and assessment of need.

This paper posits that providers with training in and knowledge of mental health resources are more likely to recognize youths' mental health problems, and provide youths with services. In 1994 and 1996, we interviewed 792 adolescents who were involved with St. Louis public health, juvenile justice, child welfare. or education service sectors. Two hundred eighty-two youths had received some services, listing 533 providers. We could identify 364 of those providers, and 61% (222) responded concerning service need, service use, and provider knowledge and behavior. Structural equation models demonstrate that provider assessment of youths' mental health problems is the largest and provider knowledge of service resources the second largest determinant of service provision. Youths' self-reported mental health is not positively associated with increased services and is only minimally associated with provider assessment of their problems. Training (both professional and inservice) contributes to higher assessments of youths' problems and greater resource knowledge, which is associated with increased service provision. Providers from the mental health and child welfare sectors have more professional training in mental health and are more likely to receive inservice training. Inservice training should be offered to all who work with youths.

Impact of environment on adolescent mental health and behavior: structural equation modeling.

This study uses structural equation models to describe how objective neighborhood, perceived neighborhood, and environmental support predict mental health; 792 adolescents responded to highly structured interviews. The effect of objective environment on mental health was mediated through its influence on perceived neighborhood. Environmental support mitigated negative perceptions of environment and the effect of perceived environment on mental health, while exposure to violence augmented the negative effect of perceived environment.

Adolescents' and providers' perspectives on the need for and use of mental health services.

PURPOSE: This study examines need for and use of services from both the adolescent's and the service provider's viewpoints. METHODS: The Youth Services Project interviewed 792 youths from the juvenile justice, education, primary health care, and child welfare sectors (200 each); gathered anonymous tallies of the mental health of youthful clients at each sector; and conducted focus groups with providers. RESULTS: A high percentage of youths (12-15%) met DSM-IV criteria for a mental health disorder, yet the sector clients were not identified as having mental health problems. Juvenile justice and child welfare sectors identified the highest percentage of adolescent clients as having mental health problems, and provided the most services (50-80%). The primary health care sector recorded no mental health disorders among the tallied clients, and provided the fewest mental health services (< 20%). Providers' complaints that they lacked knowledge concerning mental health assessment and lacked referral or treatment resources closely paralleled the degree to which their sector underserviced youths. CONCLUSION: Lack of knowledge about the extent of need in adolescents, methods for assessing or treating, and referral resources handicap service providers and explain the gap between need and service.

Person and environment in HIV risk behavior change between adolescence and young adulthood.

This article explores how personal and environmental variables influence change in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-related risk behaviors between adolescence and young adulthood. Repeated interviews with 602 youths from 10 cities across the United States provide the data. These interviews first occurred in 1984-1985 and 1985-1986 when the youths were adolescents and were repeated again in 1989-1990 and 1991-1992 when they were all young adults. A longitudinal multivariate analysis shows that 31% of the variance in HIV risk behaviors by inner-city young adults is predicted by a combination of adolescent risk behaviors, personal variables (suicidality, substance misuse, antisocial behavior), environmental variables (history of child abuse, poor relations with parents, stressful events, peer misbehavior, number of AIDS prevention messages), and interactions between variables (number of neighborhood murders with child abuse, number of neighborhood murders with substance misuse, and unemployment rates with antisocial behavior).

The association of physical and sexual abuse with HIV risk behaviors in adolescence and young adulthood: implications for public health.

This paper explores the relationship between changes in HIV risk behaviors and physical and sexual abuse. A stratified random sampling procedure selected 602 youths from a sample of 2,787 patients seen consecutively at public health clinics in 10 cities. Face-to-face structured interviews conducted since 1984-85 provide a history of change in risk behavior from adolescence to young adulthood. Univariate and bivariate analyses assessed differences in demographic and number and type of risk behaviors between those experiencing single or multiple types of abuse and those with no abuse history at all. The results show that a history of physical abuse, sexual abuse, or rape is related to engaging in a variety of HIV risk behaviors and to a continuation or increase in the total number of these behaviors between adolescence and young adulthood. This information might help practitioners to both prevent initial involvement in HIV risk behaviors and to prevent continuation of behaviors as youths move into young adulthood.

Inner-city youths and condom use: health beliefs, clinic care, welfare, and the HIV epidemic.

This paper examines questions concerning condom use and determinants of change in use by inner-city youths who appear to be in the direct path of the AIDS epidemic. Detailed information gathered in interviews with 548 youths in 1989-90 and 1991-92, provide a history of change in condom use and HIV-related high-risk behaviors. Condom use as a whole increased with time and age. Positive beliefs concerning condoms and awareness of HIV transmission were determinants of increases in use, and negative beliefs were determinants of decreases. Nevertheless, those youths who engaged in the highest HIV-risk behaviors (prostitution, IV drug use, and male homosexuality) were no more likely than lower-risk youths to increase their condom use. Financial need, indicated by receipt of welfare, appeared to be a significant barrier to increasing condom use. Also noteworthy was the negative association between using health clinics and condom use. Although youths with high-risk behaviors make more clinic visits, those visits do not result in condom use.

The influence of mental health problems on AIDS-related risk behaviors in young adults.

This paper explores how symptoms of mental health problems influence acquired immune deficiency syndrome-related risk behaviors, and how changes in those symptoms relate to risk behaviors engaged in by young adults. Repeated interviews with 602 youths since 1984 provide a history of change in behaviors. Mental health symptoms during adolescence (alcohol/drug [r = .28]; conduct disorder [r = .27]; depression [r = .16]; suicide [r = .14]; anxiety [r = .16]; and posttraumatic stress [r = .09]) are associated with higher numbers of risk behaviors (specifically, prostitution, use of intravenous drugs, and choice of a high-risk sex partner) during young adulthood. Changes in mental health symptoms between adolescence and young adulthood are related to the number of risk behaviors engaged in by young adulthood (total number of symptoms [B = .10], alcohol/drug abuse or dependence [B = .34], depression [B = .20], suicidality [B = .35], anxiety [B = .13], and posttraumatic stress [B = .14]). Changes in symptoms of mental health problems are associated specifically with those risk behaviors that are initiated primarily in young adulthood: intravenous drug use, prostitution, and choice of risky partners. The findings show that prevention and treatment of mental health problems are important components of preventive interventions for human immunodeficiency virus infection in high-risk teens and young adults.

Changes in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome-related risk behavior after adolescence: relationships to knowledge and experience concerning human immunodeficiency virus infection.

This paper explores the extent of change in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) risk level and in the numbers of AIDS-related risk behaviors in 602 inner-city adolescents as they enter young adulthood. Youths' risk level for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection during adolescence was categorized as high (engaging in prostitution, male homosexual or bisexual activity, or injectable drug use or having ulcerative sexually transmitted diseases), moderate (having six or more sex partners in a 1-year period or nonulcerative sexually transmitted diseases), or low (none of the above). Although a proportion at high or moderate risk during adolescence did move to lower risk levels by young adulthood, the overall risk level stayed fairly stable: 45% were at high or moderate risk levels during adolescence, and 35% were at those levels by young adulthood. Then change in the total number of risk behaviors engaged in by the youths was examined. Knowledge about AIDS or HIV infection and its prevention was not associated with any change in risk behavior, nor were the number of sources of information about the epidemic, acquaintance with those who are infected, estimates of personal risk, or exposure to HIV-test counseling. In fact, youths whose risk behaviors increased the most were more likely to know someone who had died of AIDS and to estimate their own risk as high. Most youths reported that they did not use condoms regularly, disliked them, and had little confidence in their protective ability. Changes in preventive strategies and further research on the causes of behavior change are needed.

Behavioral risks for human immunodeficiency virus infection in adolescent medical patients.

This paper is an examination of the extent to which adolescents in primary care indicated behavioral risk for human immunodeficiency virus infection, and the degree to which their clinic records reflected either awareness of such conditions or interventions for them. Levels of risk were assigned to the youths based on known risk factors in adult populations and arbitrarily selected natural breaks in the frequency of sexual behaviors. Of the sample, 3% were at high risk for human immunodeficiency virus infection because the adolescents engaged in prostitution, injectable drug use, male homosexual behavior, or had a sexually transmitted disease associated with genital ulcers or sores; 16% were at moderate risk because the youths had more than six sexual partners in the year preceding the interview or had nonulcerative forms of sexually transmitted disease; and the remainder were at low risk. Fewer than half of the youths at risk for human immunodeficiency virus infection sought or received help for any of their problem behaviors, while virtually all sought and received help for sexually transmitted diseases. Because a high proportion of the youths engaging in risky behaviors had sexually transmitted diseases, the most promising approach for prevention of human immunodeficiency disease infection is through health clinics that treat sexually transmitted diseases. These clinics could screen the youths for associated behavioral risk factors, and then offer preventive or interventive services.

Comprehensive health care for high-risk adolescents: an evaluation study.

This study was designed to evaluate the effectiveness of a large scale program to improve health care for high-risk adolescents. Seven clinics, funded to provide comprehensive primary care to adolescents, were compared to three non-funded clinics. The majority of the 2,788 adolescent patients sampled in these clinics were female (78 percent) and Black (71 percent). Each patient was initially interviewed at the time of a clinic visit and reinterviewed 12 months later; their medical records were systematically reviewed. As expected, the funded clinics detected and treated a wider range of medical and behavioral problems than the comparison clinics, a finding that was based on the self-reports of patients and confirmed by documentation in the medical records. However, improvements in life-style and in specific medical outcomes were not observed. To build on the limited success of this program, efforts are needed to encourage more males to receive care and to develop more specific interventions for patients in this age group.

Physical and sexual abuse in runaway youths.

This paper examines the extent of physical and sexual abuse among runaway youths and the association of that abuse with behavior, mental health, life events, and parental mental health. Of 291 youths who sought shelter at homes for runaway youths, almost half (141) reported a history of physical or sexual abuse. The results emphasize the need that these abused youths and their parents have for mental health services: One in five of the nonabused youths and one in three of the abused youths endorsed parental descriptions reflective of antisocial personality and/or drug problems, and runaways who were abused had a mean level of behavior problems in the clinically significant area. Multivariate analyses demonstrate that the simple existence of physical or sexual abuse impacts on self-esteem and overall behavior problems regardless of other family problems.

Suicide attempts in runaway youths.

This study explored suicidal behavior in 291 adolescents who were using runaway shelters in St. Louis. Thirty percent of the runaways reported having attempted suicide in the past. The suicide attempters had significantly more behavioral and mental health problems, and reported having more family members and more friends with problems, than nonattempters. A logistic regression showed that youths' substance use, behavior problems, family instability, and sex all helped to explain their suicide attempts. Most of the attempters made their first attempt by their midteens. One-quarter made their latest attempt shortly before entering the shelter, and one-fifth stated that they would still consider suicide. The great majority of attempts were not preplanned, but one-third followed troubles or arguments at home and feelings of confusion and depression. Remarkably, half of the teenage suicide attempters never received any professional help following their attempt.

Problems and help seeking in high-risk adolescent patients of health clinics.

In this study, 2787 adolescents between the ages of 13 and 18 years living in inner-city communities were interviewed about their mental and physical health and their clinic use. The patients used consolidated mental and physical health clinics located in neighborhoods, hospitals, or schools; or traditional neighborhood or hospital health clinics. Analyses of selected patient problems reveal that less than one third of adolescent patients with suicide ideation, conduct disorder, and substance abuse or dependency sought or received care for those problems. Only half of the adolescents with major depression sought or received care for depression, and only two thirds of the sexually active females sought or received help with birth control. A special effort needs to be made to attract troubled youth to clinics and to identify and treat their problems, particularly when those problems involve mental health concerns.

Adolescent sexual activity and pregnancy: socioenvironmental problems, physical health, and mental health.

PIP: This paper examines the association between adolescentpregnancy and socioenvironmental, physical, and mental health problems in 1590 inner-city US females aged 13-18 who use health clinics. Adolescents who have become pregnant, those who are sexually active but never have been pregnant, and those who are sexually inactive are compared. The sexually active youngsters come from more psychosocially disadvantaged backgrounds than their sexually inactive peers; the sexually active girls who become pregnant come from more psychosocially disadvantaged backgrounds than those who have never been pregnant. Despite this, the youths who have become pregnant do not have more current relationship problems, more stressful life events, or worse physical health than the never-pregnant sexually active youths. Although sexually inactive youths have the lowest rates of mental health problems, adolescents who have been pregnant have lower rates of anxiety and conduct disorder symptoms than those who are sexually active but never pregnant.^ieng