[Regulatory mechanisms of mitochondrial dynamics and its emerging role in renal pathophysiology].

Mitochondria are dynamically changing organelles that maintain stable mitochondrial morphology, number, and function through constant fusion and division, a process known as mitochondrial dynamics, which is an important mechanism for mitochondrial quality control. Excessive fusion and division of mitochondria can lead to a homeostatic imbalance in mitochondrial dynamics, causing mitochondrial dysfunction, leading to cellular damage, and even death. The physiological functions of the kidney are mainly powered by mitochondria, and homeostatic imbalance in mitochondrial dynamics affects mitochondrial function and is closely related to renal diseases such as acute kidney injury and diabetic nephropathy. This article reviews the regulation of mitochondrial kinetics, how imbalances in mitochondrial kinetic homeostasis affect mitochondrial injury, and the impact of mitochondrial injury on renal pathophysiology, in order to improve understanding and knowledge of the role of mitochondria in renal disease.

The role and therapeutic potential of nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) in ischemic stroke.

Stroke is a prevalent cerebrovascular condition with a global impact, causing significant rates of illness and death. Despite extensive research, the available treatment options for stroke remain restricted. Hence, it is crucial to gain a deeper understanding of the molecular mechanisms associated with the onset and advancement of stroke in order to establish a theoretical foundation for novel preventive and therapeutic approaches. NF-κB, also known as nuclear factor κB, is a transcription factor responsible for controlling the expression of numerous genes and plays a crucial role in diverse physiological processes. NF-κB is triggered and regulates neuroinflammation and other processes after stroke, promoting the generation of cytokine storms and contributing to the advancement of ischemic stroke (IS). Therefore, NF-κB could potentially play a vital role in stroke by regulating diverse pathophysiological processes. This review provides an overview of the functions of NF-κB in stroke and its governing mechanisms. In addition, our attention is directed towards various potential therapies that aim to inhibit the NF-κB signaling pathway in order to offer valuable insights for the advancement of innovative treatment approaches for stroke.

The Beneficial Role of Exercise on Treating Alzheimer's Disease by Inhibiting ß-Amyloid Peptide.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is associated with a very large burden on global healthcare systems. Thus, it is imperative to find effective treatments of the disease. One feature of AD is the accumulation of neurotoxic ß-amyloid peptide (Aß). Aß induces multiple pathological processes that are deleterious to nerve cells. Despite the development of medications that target the reduction of Aß to treat AD, none has proven to be effective to date. Non-pharmacological interventions, such as physical exercise, are also being studied. The benefits of exercise on AD are widely recognized. Experimental and clinical studies have been performed to verify the role that exercise plays in reducing Aß deposition to alleviate AD. This paper reviewed the various mechanisms involved in the exercise-induced reduction of Aß, including the regulation of amyloid precursor protein cleaved proteases, the glymphatic system, brain-blood transport proteins, degrading enzymes and autophagy, which is beneficial to promote exercise therapy as a means of prevention and treatment of AD and indicates that exercise may provide new therapeutic targets for the treatment of AD.

The involvement of NLRP3 inflammasome in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases.

In an ageing society, neurodegenerative diseases have attracted attention because of their high incidence worldwide. Despite extensive research, there is a lack of conclusive insights into the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases, which limit the strategies for symptomatic treatment. Therefore, better elucidation of the molecular mechanisms involved in neurodegenerative diseases can provide an important theoretical basis for the discovery of new and effective prevention and treatment methods. The innate immune system is activated during the ageing process and in response to neurodegenerative diseases. Inflammasomes are multiprotein complexes that play an important role in the activation of the innate immune system. They mediate inflammatory reactions and pyroptosis, which are closely involved in neurodegeneration. There are different types of inflammasomes, although the nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptor pyrin domain-containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome is the most common inflammasome; NLRP3 plays an important role in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases. In this review, we will discuss the mechanisms that are involved in the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome and its crucial role in the pathology of neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and multiple sclerosis. We will also review various treatments that target the NLRP3 inflammasome pathway and alleviate neuroinflammation. Finally, we will summarize the novel treatment strategies for neurodegenerative disorders.

The involvement of NLRP3 inflammasome in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is one of the most common neurodegenerative diseases, and it is characterised by progressive deterioration in cognitive and memory abilities, which can severely influence the elderly population's daily living abilities. Although researchers have made great efforts in the field of AD, there are still no well-established strategies to prevent and treat this disease. Therefore, better clarification of the molecular mechanisms associated with the onset and progression of AD is critical to provide a theoretical basis for the establishment of novel preventive and therapeutic strategies. Currently, it is generally believed that neuroinflammation plays a key role in the pathogenesis of AD. Inflammasome, a multiprotein complex, is involved in the innate immune system, and it can mediate inflammatory responses and pyroptosis, which lead to neurodegeneration. Among the various types of inflammasomes, the NLRP3 inflammasome is the most characterised in neurodegenerative diseases, especially in AD. The activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome causes the generation of caspase-1-mediated interleukin (IL)-1ß and IL-18 in microglia cells, where neuroinflammation is involved in the development and progression of AD. Thus, the NLRP3 inflammasome is likely to be a crucial therapeutic molecular target for AD via regulating neuroinflammation. In this review, we summarise the current knowledge on the role and regulatory mechanisms of the NLRP3 inflammasome in the pathogenic mechanisms of AD. We also focus on a series of potential therapeutic treatments targeting NLRP3 inflammasome for AD. Further clarification of the regulatory mechanisms of the NLRP3 inflammasome in AD may provide more useful clues to develop novel AD treatment strategies.

The role of exosomes in stroke.

Stroke is induced by a partial disruption of cerebral blood flow to the brain and is related to high morbidity and mortality. In the central nervous system, exosomes have been proven to exert neuroprotective effects, reducing brain damage following a stroke. This review was performed by searching the relevant articles in the SCIENCEDIRECT, PUBMED, and Web of Science databases from respective inception to November 2018. We review the relationship between exosomes and angiogenesis, neurogenesis, antiapoptosis, autophagy, and the blood-brain barrier in stroke. Moreover, exosomes are found to be a promising tool for the diagnosis and treatment of stroke. In summary, exosomes provide a novel way to alleviate brain damage following a stroke.

Electroacupuncture Inhibits Neuronal Autophagy and Apoptosis via the PI3K/AKT Pathway Following Ischemic Stroke.

Electroacupuncture (EA) is a safe and effective therapy for ischemic stroke in both clinical and laboratory settings. However, the underlying mechanism behind EA treatment for stroke remains unclear. Here, we aimed to evaluate whether EA treatment at the acupoints of Zusanli (ST36) and Quchi (LI11) exerted a neuroprotective effect on ischemic stroke rats by modulating autophagy and apoptosis via the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway. EA was performed at 24 h following brain ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) for 30 min per day for 3 days. Our results indicated that EA treatment significantly decreased neurological deficits and cerebral infarct volume in ischemic stroke rats. Also, EA intervention markedly reduced neuronal apoptosis by suppressing the activation of cleaved caspase-3 (CCAS3) at 72 h following I/R, as shown by a Western blot analysis. Furthermore, EA treatment after ischemic stroke suppressed the ischemia activated expression level of LC3II/I and Atg7 and increased the ischemia inhibited expression level of PI3K, phosphorylation of mTOR, phosphorylation of AKT, P62 and LAMP1, hence mediating the autophagy level of the neurocyte, which was reversed by the PI3K inhibitor Dactolisib. In summary, our results indicate that the protective effects of EA treatment at points of Quchi (LI11) and Zusanli (ST36) in rats following cerebral I/R injury was associated with the inhibition of neuronal apoptosis and autophagy via activating the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway.

Inhibition of NLRP3 Inflammasome: A Prospective Target for the Treatment of Ischemic Stroke.

Stroke is one of the major devastating diseases with no effective medical therapeutics. Because of the high rate of disability and mortality among stroke patients, new treatments are urgently required to decrease brain damage following a stroke. In recent years, the inflammasome is a novel breakthrough point that plays an important role in the stroke, and the inhibition of inflammasome may be an effective method for stroke treatment. Briefly, inflammasome is a multi-protein complex that causes activation of caspase-1 and subsequent production of pro-inflammatory factors including interleukin (IL)-18 and IL-1ß. Among them, the NLRP3 inflammasome is the most typical inflammasome, which can detect cell damage and mediate inflammatory response to tissue damage in ischemic stroke. The NLRP3 inflammasome has become a key mediator of post-ischemic inflammation, leading to a cascade of inflammatory reactions and cell death eventually. Thus, NLRP3 inflammasome is an ideal therapeutic target due to its important role in the inflammatory response after ischemic stroke. In this mini review article, we will summarize the structure, assembly, and regulation of NLRP3 inflammasome, the role of NLRP3 inflammasome in ischemic stroke, and several treatments targeting NLRP3 inflammasome in ischemic stroke. The further understanding of the mechanism of NLRP3 inflammasome in patients with ischemic stroke will provide novel targets for the treatment of cerebral ischemic stroke patients.

The benefits and mechanisms of exercise training for Parkinson's disease.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a significantly progressive neurodegenerative disease characterised by both motor and nonmotor disorders. The main pathological characteristics of PD consist of the loss of dopaminergic neurons and the formation of alpha-synuclein-containing Lewy bodies in the substantia nigra. Currently, the main therapeutic method for PD is anti-Parkinson medications, including levodopa, madopar, sirelin, and so on. However, the effect of pharmacological treatment has its own limitations, the most significant of which is that the therapeutic effect of dopaminergic treatments gradually diminishes with time. Exercise training, as an adjunctive treatment and complementary therapy, can improve the plasticity of cortical striatum and increase the release of dopamine. Exercise training has been proven to effectively improve motor disorders (including balance, gait, risk of falls and physical function) and nonmotor disorders (such as sleep impairments, cognitive function and quality of life) in PD patients. In recent years, various types of exercise training have been used to treat PD. In this review, we summarise the exercise therapy mechanisms and the protective effects of different types of exercise training on PD patients.