Solar water disinfection in large-volume containers: from the laboratory to the field. A case study in Tigray, Ethiopia.

The lack of safe drinking water affects communities in low-to-medium-income countries most. This barrier can be overcome by using sustainable point-of-use water treatments. Solar energy has been used to disinfect water for decades, and several efforts have been made to optimise the standard procedure of solar water disinfection (SODIS process). However, the Health Impact Assessment of implementing advanced technologies in the field is also a critical step in evaluating the success of the optimisation. This work reports a sustainable scaling-up of SODIS from standard 2 L bottles to 25 L transparent jerrycans (TJC) and a 12-month field implementation in four sites of Tigray in Ethiopia, where 80.5% of the population lives without reliable access to safe drinking water and whose initial baseline average rate of diarrhoeal disease in children under 5 years was 13.5%. The UVA dose required for 3-log reduction of E. coli was always lower than the minimum UVA daily dose received in Tigray (9411 ± 55 Wh/m2). Results confirmed a similar decrease in cases of diarrhoea in children in the implementation (25 L PET TJC) and control (2 L PET bottles) groups, supporting the feasibility of increasing the volume of the SODIS water containers to produce safer drinking water with a sustainable and user-friendly process.

Intestinal parasitosis, anaemia and risk factors among pre-school children in Tigray region, northern Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Intestinal parasitic infections (IPIs) and anaemia are major health problems. This study assessed the prevalence of intestinal parasitic infections, anaemia and associated factors among pre-school children in rural areas of the Tigray region, northern Ethiopia. METHODS: A community based cross-sectional study was conducted among 610 pre-school children in rural communities of Northern Ethiopia from June 2017 to August 2017. Stool specimens were examined for the presence of trophozoites, cysts, oocysts, and ova using direct, formal-ethyl acetate concentration, Kato-Katz, and Ziehl-Neelsen techniques. Haemoglobin was measured using a HemoCue spectrometer. RESULTS: Among the 610 participating pre-school children in the study, the prevalence of IPIs and anaemia were 58% (95% conference interval (CI): 54.1-61.9%) and 21.6% (95% CI: 18.5-25.1%), respectively. Single, double, and triple parasitic infections were seen in 249 (41, 95% CI: 37-45%), 83 (14, 95% CI: 11-17%), and 22 (3.6, 95% CI: 2.4-5.4%) children, respectively. Of the seven intestinal parasitic organisms recorded from the participants, Entamoeba histolytica/dispar was the most prevalent 220 (36.1%) followed by Giardia lamblia 128 (20.1%), and Hymenolepis nana 102 (16.7%). Mixed infections were common among G. lamblia, E. histolytica/dispar and Cryptosporidium spp. oocyst. Intestinal parasitic infection prevalence increased from 47% in children aged 6-11 months to 66% in those aged 48-59 months; the prevalence ratio (PR) associated with a one-year increase in age was 1.08 (95% CI: 1.02-1.14, p = 0.009). Age-adjusted prevalence was higher in children who had been dewormed (PR = 1.2; 95% CI: 1.00-1.4, p = 0.045), and lower in households having two or more children aged under five (PR = 0.76, 95% CI: 0.61-0.95, p = 0.015). Anaemia rose from 28% in children aged 6-11 months to 43% in those aged 12-23 months, then fell continuously with age, reaching 7% in those aged 48-59 months. Age adjusted, anaemia was more prevalent in households using proper disposal of solid waste (PR = 1.5, 95% CI: 0.1-2.10, p = 0.009) while eating raw meat (PR = 0.49, 95% CI: 0.45-0.54, p = 0.000), any maternal education (PR = 0.64 95% CI: 0.52-0.79, p = 0.000), and household water treatment (PR = 0.75, 95% CI: 0.56-1.0, p = 0.044) were associated with lower prevalence of anaemia. CONCLUSIONS: More than half of the children were infected with intestinal parasites, while anaemia prevalence was concentrated in the 12-23 month age group. This study has identified a number of potentially modifiable risk factors to address the significant prevalence of IPIs and anaemia in these children. Improvements in sanitation, clean water, hand hygiene, maternal education could address both short and long-term consequences of these conditions in this vulnerable population.

Risk factors for diarrhoea and malnutrition among children under the age of 5 years in the Tigray Region of Northern Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Diarrhoea and malnutrition are the leading cause of morbidity and mortality among children in areas with poor access to clean water, improved sanitation, and with low socioeconomic status. This study was designed to determine the prevalence of diarrhoea, malnutrition and risk factors among children aged 6-59 months in the Tigray Region of Northern Ethiopia. METHODS: A community based cross-sectional study design was conducted from June to August 2017 to assess the magnitude and factors associated with diarrhoea and malnutrition among children. A standardized questionnaire was used to collect data on diarrhoea, environmental, demographic and behavioural factors from 610 mother-child pairs. Anthropometric measurements were collected from the children. SPSS ver.21 statistical software was used for analysis. Factors associated with diarrhoea and nutritional status were identified using bivariate and multivariate logistic regression. A p-value ≤ 0.05 was considered statistically significant. RESULTS: Of the 610 children monitored in this study, the incidence of diarrhoea among 6-59 month-old children in the two weeks preceding the day of the interview day was 27.2% (95% CI: 23.6-31%). Specifically, 35.9%, 9.7%, and 1.8% had 1-2, 3-4 and 5-6 times of diarrhoea episodes in a one year of time, respectively. The prevalence of stunting, underweight, wasting, and acute under-nutrition were 36.1% (95% CI: 31-38.6%), 37% (95% CI: 32-39.6%), 7.9% (95% CI: 5.5-9.7%), and 5.4% (95% CI: 3.8-7.4%), respectively. In a multivariate logistic regression analysis, type of drinking water source [AOR = 3.69; 95% CI: 2.03-6.71], mothers not hand washing at critical times [AOR = 15.42; 95% CI: 2.02-117.78], improper solid waste disposal [AOR = 12.81; 95% CI: 2.50-65.62], and child age (36-47 months) [AOR = 2.57; 95% CI: 1.45-4.55] were found to be predictors of diarrhoea. Being within the age range of 12-23 months was a predictor for wasting [AOR = 4.38; 95% CI: 1.61-11.90] and being underweight [AOR = 4.4; 95% CI: 1.7-11.2]. Similarly, the age range of 36-47 months was associated with wasting [AOR = 2.3; 95% CI: 1.45-3.85] and stunting [AOR = 1.7; 95% CI: 1.03-2.67]. Family size (less than 4) [AOR = 0.56; 95% CI: 0.368-0.959] was inversely associated for wasting. CONCLUSIONS: Our study revealed that the problem of diarrhoea and malnutrition amongst 6-59 months children in the study area was significant. Access to clean water was the main problem in the study area. Hence, improving access to clean water and providing health education to mothers on personal and environmental hygiene, and proper waste disposal could improve diarrhoea in the study area. Intervention on children's nutrition should also be implemented to minimize the problem of malnutrition.

Evaluation of the antimycobacterial activity of crude extracts and solvent fractions of selected Ethiopian medicinal plants.

BACKGROUND: Tuberculosis (TB) is a global health problem complicated by drug resistance and human immunodeficiency virus that has dramatically increased active TB. Several medicinal plants are used traditionally to treat TB in Ethiopia and investigating these plants is required as plants are an alternative source for development of new anti-TB drugs. The purpose of this study was to investigate antimycobacterial activity of crude extract of Carissa edulis, Otostegia integrifolia, Persea americana, Pterolobium stellatum and Vernonia amygdalina as well as fractions of the most active crude extract. METHODS: The effect of various doses of the crude extracts as well as solvent fractions on M. tuberculosis H37Rv and/or MDR-TB clinical isolate was determined using broth microdilution and microtiter resazurin assay methods. Minimum inhibitory concentration was determined by CFU count and resazurin color change observation. RESULTS: Chloroform and 80% methanol extracts of P. stellatum and O. integrifolia as well as 80% methanol and acetone extracts of P. americana had significant antimycobacterial activity (p < 0.001) against M. tuberculosis H37Rv. Chloroform extract of V. amygdalina and C. edulis didn't, however, show any significant activity compared to negative controls. P. stellatum chloroform extract was the most active on M. tuberculosis H37Rv (MIC 0.039 mg/ml) and AOZ8W-4 (MDR-TB clinical isolate) (MIC = 0.078 mg/ml). Ethyl acetate fraction of P. stellatum chloroform extract was the most active fraction. CONCLUSION: P. stellatum, O. integrifolia and P. americana were found to be endowed with antimycobacterial activity. However, P. stellatum appears to be the most promising plant based on criteria set by different studies. Ethyl acetate fraction of P. stellatum was found to be the most active and future studies should involve this fraction.