Patients' Choices for Yoga Therapy: An Exploratory Cross-Sectional, Convenience-Sampling Survey from India.

In conventional healthcare, patients' preferences for their treatment are determined, though this practice has not been reported for yoga therapy. The present convenience sampling exploratory survey attempted to determine whether those seeking yoga therapy would report preferences for the way yoga therapy is implemented, the therapist's knowledge, and related aspects of yoga therapy. Responses from 426 people attending a yoga therapy institution in India were analyzed. Based on the chi-square test (p < 0.05) and Cramer's V (> 0.10), most people wished to receive yoga therapy in a group of others with a similar disease (42.25%), in a yoga institution (83.57%), and as in-person sessions (48.83%). Patients preferred yoga therapists to know about the principles of yoga (40.38%), to be well-informed generally (61.97%), and to be able to give suggestions for emotional well-being. For the majority of participants (59.4%), the reason for selecting yoga therapy was "a belief in yoga as therapy" (rather than as an add-on therapy or as a last resort). Patients' expectations of yoga therapy were positive, namely a cure of disease (79.34%) and improvement after 1 year (95.8%). Most patients (91.6%) wanted their conventional medicine practitioner to know that they were receiving yoga therapy. Although limited by the study design, survey design, and participant details available, overall results suggest that patients (1) reported specific preferences (for the implementation of yoga therapy and for yoga therapists' knowledge), (2) had expectations of yoga therapy, and (3) most often were interested in their conventional care physicians being informed about the yoga therapy they received.

Yoga Practice and Choices of Foods, Physical Activity, and Leisure: A Convenience Sampling Survey from India.

Background: Previous surveys from countries other than India reported positive health behaviors in yoga practitioners. The present study aimed to determine with respect to yoga practitioners in India: (i) percentages of yoga practitioners who consumed specific foods, had additional physical activity and leisure activity, (ii) the association between these choices and their yoga practice, and (iii) the association of yoga with adding or avoiding specific foods and with meal timings in a day. Materials and Methods: This convenience hybrid-mode sampling survey was conducted on 551 yoga-experienced persons. Results: (1) Yoga practitioner respondents ate fruits and vegetables regularly (62.1%), did not consume animal source products (69.2%), alcohol (98.0%), or tobacco (98.4%), had a regular physical activity other than yoga (77.5%) and leisure activities (92.2%). (2) More than 150 min/week of yoga practice and experience of yoga exceeding 60 months was (a) significantly associated with (i) regular consumption of fruits and vegetables, (ii) lower consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages, animal source foods, tobacco, and alcohol (P < 0.05, Chi-square test) and (b) not associated with physical activity or leisure activities (P > 0.05, Chi-square test). (3) Yoga practitioners excluded sugar-sweetened beverages, animal-source foods and fast foods from their diet, whereas they added fruits, vegetables, and plant-based juices to their diet, with earlier first and last meals for the day. Conclusion: In India, yoga practitioner respondents' choices for foods, physical activity, and leisure conform to accepted positive health behaviors. The exclusion of animal-source foods emphasizes the need for well-planned and fortified diets among vegan yoga practitioners.

Use of Yoga in India During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Results of a Patient Based Survey.

No Abstract available.

P300 Following Four Voluntarily Regulated Yoga Breathing Practices and Breath Awareness.

Attention was influenced by yoga breathing in previously published research. Each yoga breathing practice uniquely modifies specific breath characteristics. Differences in the study designs, assessment methods and interventions resulted in difficulty in comparing effects between yoga breathing practices. This study aimed (i) to compare four yoga breathing practices on attention using an auditory oddball task and (ii) to determine cardiac autonomic activity associated with attention using heart rate variability. P300 event related potential was recorded simultaneously with heart rate variability before and after 18-minute periods each of (i) high frequency yoga breathing (with increased breath frequency), (ii) bellows yoga breathing (with increased depth of respiration), (iii) alternate nostril yoga breathing (with alternate nostril patency), (iv) bumblebee yoga breathing (with prolonged exhale), (v) breath awareness (with attention to the breath) and (vi) quiet seated rest as control in 38 yoga experienced males (average age ± SD; 24.08 ± 4.01 years). The six sessions were on separate, randomly allocated days. The P300 peak amplitude recorded at Pz was significantly increased after four yoga breathing practices (Bonferroni adjusted post-hoc tests, repeated measures ANOVA). No significant changes were noted in heart rate variability following yoga breathing or control sessions. These findings suggest that the four yoga breathing practices increase the attentional neural resources engaged for this auditory oddball task, irrespective of the characteristic of breath uniquely regulated in the four yoga breathing practices.

Motivators, Preferences, and Aspirations of University Students about Studying Yoga: A Survey from India.

Introduction: University students' motivators and preferences for yoga as their course of study can influence their future as yoga instructors and therapists. Materials and Methods: Six hundred and thirty-six students of both genders (251:385, male: female) from four North Indian universities offering graduate and postgraduate courses in yoga were the respondents to a convenience sampling survey about their preferences and motivators. Results: The three most common reasons why students chose to study yoga were (i) "I can help many people through knowledge of yoga" (32.2%), (ii) "I will become a better person by studying yoga" (21.9%), and (iii) "I find yoga interesting" (18.9%). After completion of the course, most students wished (i) "to study another course in yoga" (28.8%), (ii) "to work in yoga and education in a university" (17.5%), and (iii) "to work in yoga and research" (14.3%). Students appreciated positive effects which they attributed to yoga (e.g. good health, feeling peaceful, and positive behavior changes). Conclusion: Students did not like regulations such as early wakening and dietary restrictions. The available information about the scope, benefits, safety considerations, and requirements of yoga can help student aspirants make an informed choice about their future careers. Students of yoga can be further motivated by evidence informed interactive sessions.

Heartfulness Cleaning and Meditation: Short-Term Effects on Attention and Affect.

Heartfulness meditation (HM) trains the practitioner's attention as they progress towards reaching a super-conscious state. The process is supported by guided "Heartfulness cleaning," which helps clear the mind. This study aimed to examine the short-term effects of HM on affect and cognition and determine whether performing Heartfulness cleaning beforehand influenced the meditation outcome. Forty-eight experienced meditators (age range: 19-71 years and a male-to-female ratio: 27:21) were randomly assigned to 3 sessions: (i) HM, (ii) Heartfulness meditation preceded by cleaning, and (iii) quiet rest as a control. Mood state and emotional well-being were assessed before and after each intervention using established scales such as the Brief Mood Introspection Scale, Global Vigor and Affect Scale, Spielberger's State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, and the Digit Letter Substitution Test. After engaging in both HM and Heartfulness cleaning meditation (HCM) practices, there was a noticeable increase in feelings of pleasantness (7.3%, 7.0%, respectively) and positivity (7.5%, 7.8%, respectively), accompanied by a decrease in negative affect (14.4%, 16.5%, respectively). Additionally, HM and HCM increased in the net and total scores on a substitution test designed to measure associative learning. In contrast, there were no changes observed after 30 minutes of non-meditation. In summary, the findings of this study provide support for the positive impact of Heartfulness meditation and Heartfulness cleaning meditation on emotions, as well as their ability to enhance performance in tasks involving complex attention and associative learning. It should be noted that preceding Heartfulness meditation with 5 minutes of Heartfulness cleaning did not significantly alter the overall outcome of the meditation practice.

Breath Phase Durations, Affect, and Attention: A Pilot Randomized Crossover Trial.

Objectives: Previously, yoga volitional breathing with low inspiration to expiration ratios (i/e) (as in bhramari pranayama) improved cognition and reduced state anxiety. This study compared the effects of low, high and equal i/e ratio breathing on affect and attention. Material and Methods: Affect, vigor and attention were assessed in forty healthy participants (group mean age± SD; 22.58±3.83; M:F= 2.33:1) while breathing with three different i/e regulated by a visual metronome on separate days viz., (i) low i/e (28:72), (ii) equal i/e (50:50), (iii) high i/e (72:28) compared to control, without conscious breath modification. Assessments were: (i) brief mood introspection scale (BMIS), (ii) global vigor and affect scale (GVAS), (iii) Spielberger's state trait anxiety inventory-state (STAI-S) and a six letter cancellation test to assess sustained attention. Data were analyzed with repeated measures analysis of variance with Bonferroni adjusted post-hoc tests. Results: Pleasant feelings increased after low and equal i/e. Low i/e also increased positive feelings whereas equal i/e decreased scores in the cancellation test for sustained attention. All three breathing practices and the control session decreased state anxiety and increased vigor. High i/e breathing alone did not decrease negative feelings. For all the breath ratios the breath frequency cue was set at twelve breaths per minute. Conclusion: In summary, varying breath phase ratios influenced positive and pleasant feelings but did not influence state anxiety or vigor. Understanding the mechanisms underlying the findings would be improved with concurrent physiological assessments.

Changes in Brain Waves During Silent Repetition of OM: A Crossover Study from India.

Previously, the electroencephalogram (EEG) recorded while listening to repetition of a Sanskrit monosyllable (i.e., OM) was not significantly different from the EEG recorded during control periods. In the present study, fifteen adult volunteers from northern India (all male, average age 25.0 ± 4.9 years) were assessed using monopolar scalp EEG recordings before, during and after (i) silent repetition of a monosyllable (OM), (ii) silent repetition of 'one' and (iii) quiet rest. In (i), (ii) and (iii) breathing was not consciously modified. The participants had an average of five years' experience of focused meditation (dharana), involving awareness directed to the breath. Participants had no prior experience of silent repetition of either 'OM' or 'one'. They were Indian Hindus for whom OM has special spiritual significance, whereas 'one' does not. The sessions were on separate days in random order. The absolute and relative energy of theta waves in the EEG recorded at Pz-A2 increased significantly during repetition of OM compared to the preceding state. There were no changes during silent repetition of 'one' or during quiet rest. Increased energy in the theta band while awake reflects a state of relaxation devoid of effort. Hence, during silent repetition of OM alone there were changes suggestive of effortless relaxation.

Smartphone Excessive Use, Sleep, and Beliefs about Well-being in University Students who Practice Yoga Compared with Those with No Experience of Yoga.

Background: Addictive behavior can be effectively managed with yoga. This study compared smartphone use, self-rated sleep, and beliefs about well-being in university students who practiced yoga regularly with those who did not. Materials and Methods: One hundred and forty-two university students (average age ± standard deviation: 20.2 ± 2.2; male: female = 1:1) who practiced yoga (90 min a day, 6 days a week, and 29.7 months) were compared for smartphone excessive use, self-rated sleep, and beliefs about well-being, with an equal number of comparable age- and gender-distributed university students who did not practice yoga. Results: The yoga group had lower scores on the short version of the Smartphone Addiction Scale with fewer nocturnal episodes of checking their smartphone. The nonyoga group reported longer nocturnal sleep time compared to the yoga group, whereas there was no significant difference in the beliefs about well-being scores between the two groups. Conclusions: University students who practice yoga may be less likely to use a smartphone excessively as well as have uninterrupted sleep than students who do not practice yoga.

Perceptions about the Benefits and Negative Outcomes of Yoga Practice by Yoga-Naïve Persons: A Cross-sectional Survey.

Background and Objective: Understanding the way nonexercisers view the benefits and barriers to physical exercise helps promote physical exercise. This study reports perceived benefits and negative outcomes of yoga perceived by yoga-naïve persons. Methods: The 2550 yoga-naïve respondents of both sexes (m:f = 2162:388; group mean age ± SD 23.5 ± 12.6 years) participated in a convenience sampling in-person survey conducted to determine the perceived benefits and negative outcomes of yoga. Results: Among 2550 respondents, 97.4% believed yoga practice had benefits. The three most common perceived benefits of yoga were improvement in (i) physical health (39.8%), (ii) cognitive functions (32.8%), and (iii) mental health (20.4%). Among the respondents, 1.4% believed that yoga had negative outcomes. The three most common perceived negative outcomes were (i) apprehension that wrong methods may be harmful (0.24%), (ii) apprehension that excessive practice may harm (0.24%), and (iii) laziness (0.12%). Conclusion: The most common perceived benefit of yoga practice was "improvement in physical health," with "apprehension that wrong or excessive practice could be harmful" as the most common perceived negative outcomes of yoga.

Cerebrovascular Dynamics Associated with Yoga Breathing and Breath Awareness.

Aims: Breath frequency can alter cerebral blood flow. The study aimed to determine bilateral middle cerebral arterial hemodynamics in high-frequency yoga breathing (HFYB) and slow frequency alternate nostril yoga breathing (ANYB) using transcranial Doppler sonography. Methods: Healthy male volunteers were assessed in two separate trials before, during, and after HFYB (2.0 Hz for 1 min, n = 16) and ANYB (12 breaths per minute for 5 min, n = 22). HFYB and ANYB were separately compared to breath awareness (BAW) and to control sessions. Statistical Analysis: The data were analyzed using repeated-measures ANOVA with Bonferroni adjusted post hoc tests. Results: During HFYB there was a decrease in end-diastolic velocity (EDV) and mean flow velocity (MFV) (P < 0.01 for left and P < 0.05 for right middle cerebral arteries; MCA) with an increase in pulsatility index (PI) for the right MCA (P < 0.05). During ANYB, there was a bilateral decrease in peak systolic velocity (P < 0.05 for left and P < 0.01 for right MCA), EDV (P < 0.01) and MFV (P < 0.01 for left and P < 0.001 for right MCA) and an increase in PI (P < 0.01). During BAW of the two sessions there was a decrease in lateralized flow and end-diastolic velocities (P < 0.05) and an increase in PI (P < 0.05). Conclusions: Changes in peak flow velocities and pulsatility indices during and after HFYB, ANYB, and BAW suggest decreased cerebrovascular blood flow and increased flow resistance based on different mechanisms.

Volitional Yoga Breathing Influences Attention and Anxiety: An Exploratory Randomized Crossover Study.

BACKGROUND: Previous studies assessed yoga breathing practices individually. This exploratory, randomized crossover study assessed attention and anxiety following four yoga breathing practices, breath awareness, and quiet seated rest. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Thirty-eight male volunteers between 20 and 37 years (group mean age ± SD; 24.08 ± 4.01 years) were assessed in six sessions in random order (www.randomizer.org) on separate days. The sessions were: (i) alternate nostril yoga breathing, (ii) bellows yoga breathing, (iii) bumblebee yoga breathing, (iv) high-frequency yoga breathing, (v) breath awareness, and (vi) quiet seated rest. The sessions were for 18 min each. Six letter cancellation test (SLCT) and Spielberger's State Trait Anxiety Inventory-state (STAI-s) were administered pre and post each session. Data analysis used general linear mixed model analysis, with fixed effect of states (pre and post) and sessions. RESULTS: A significant main effect of states was observed on total attempted (F1,407 = 5.374, p = 0.021) and net attempted scores (F1,407 = 6.178, p = 0.013) of the SLCT, with a significant increase in scores following high-frequency yoga breathing (padj = 0.031 for total attempted scores; padj = 0.029 for net attempted scores). Also, a significant main effect of states on STAI-s scores was observed (F1,407 = 33.979, p < 0.001), with a significant decrease in scores following alternate nostril yoga breathing (padj = 0.001), bellows yoga breathing (padj = 0.008), bumblebee yoga breathing (padj = 0.002), and high-frequency yoga breathing (padj = 0.042) compared to the corresponding pre state. There was a significant main effect of sessions (F5,407 = 3.043, p = 0.010) on STAI-s scores, with scores post alternate nostril yoga breathing significantly lower than post breath awareness (padj = 0.037). CONCLUSION: Following high-frequency yoga breathing sustained attention was better than before while state anxiety decreased in post-pre comparisons of alternate nostril yoga breathing, bellows yoga breathing, bumblebee yoga breathing, and high-frequency yoga breathing. The differences between breathing practices may be due to differences in degree of volitional regulation of breathing and in the breath patterns modified volitionally. The generalizability of the findings was limited by including an all male, yoga experienced sample. Future research should include participants of both genders and could include different levels of yoga experience, with assessments including objective measures of attention and anxiety.

Yoga instructors' reported benefits and disadvantages associated with functioning online: A convenience sampling survey.

BACKGROUND: Among numerous changes in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, most yoga classes have repositioned online. However benefits, difficulties and satisfaction of teaching yoga online remain to be studied. With this background the present survey aimed to determine: (i) benefits, disadvantages and satisfaction of teaching yoga online and (ii) their association with characteristics related to (a) socio-demographic, (b) online yoga teaching experience and (c) yoga practice. METHODS: Three hundred and five yoga instructors were invited to take part in the online survey. Of these, 181 (m:f = 98:83) responded to the survey satisfactorily and were included. RESULTS: The three most common benefits of teaching yoga online were: (i) a sense of safety from risk of COVID-19 (93.92%), (ii) cost saving (82.87%) and (iii) wider access to trainees within India (77.90%). The three most common disadvantages were: (i) technical difficulties (74.03%), (ii) missing in-person contact (63.90%) and (iii) concern that online instructions can lead to injury (59.16%). Around 66.30% respondents were satisfied with the monitoring of trainees during online yoga classes while 70.16% respondents were satisfied with the level of attention they could pay to the topic they were teaching during online yoga class. The benefits and disadvantages of teaching yoga online varied with the characteristics of yoga instructors (p < 0.05, χ2 test). CONCLUSIONS: The benefits and disadvantages of teaching yoga online are of relevance during and beyond the pandemic. Characteristics related to (i) socio-demographics, (ii) online yoga teaching and (iii) yoga practice influence reported benefits and disadvantages of teaching yoga online.

A Comparison of Practice Guidelines for Yoga Breathing from the Traditional Texts and PubMed-Indexed Research.

Volitional yoga breathing techniques influence several physiological functions depending on the changes made in depth of breathing, relative duration of exhalation to inhalation, and breath frequency. The practice guidelines for three routinely practiced and researched yoga breathing practices (bhastrika pranayama [bellows breath], bhramari pranayama [bee breath], and kapalabhati pranayama [breath of fire]) were compared between the traditional written texts (i.e., Hatha Yoga Pradipika, Gheranda Samhita) and published research indexed in PubMed (a total of 73 studies; 25 on bhastrika pranayama, 17 on bhramari pranayama, and 31 on kapalabhati pranayama). We compared the specifications for posture, time of day, location, and duration of practice; frequency, depth, and holding (kumbhaka) of the breath; speed and/or force and right or left nostril use for inhalation and exhalation; duration of inhalation relative to exhalation; thoracic or diaphragmatic breathing (or comparable terms in the traditional texts); mental state; physiological locks (bandhas) ; and hand gestures (mudras). Differences between the practice guidelines in the traditional texts and published research with respect to the depth of b reathing (bhastrika pranayama), relative breath phase duration (bhramari pranayama), and breath frequency (kapalabhati pranayama) are presented despite the findings being restricted to published studies from a single bibliographic database. Differences in the way yoga breathing is practiced could influence the physiological effects obtained, and differences between methods reported in published studies could make it difficult to summarize the effects of yoga breathing practice across studies.

A PubMed-Based Exploration of the Course of Yoga Research from 1948 to 2020.

Yoga research citations from 1948 to 2020 in PubMed were filtered and sorted in 10-year intervals to explore the occurrence and time frame of change in (1) the focus of research; (2) the number of randomized controlled trials (RCTs), systematic reviews (SRs), and meta-analyses (MAs); (3) health conditions researched for yoga as therapy; (4) journals with yoga research; and (5) the research on yoga from different countries. Publications on yoga between 1948 and 1970 (1.25%) focused on exceptional abilities of experienced yoga practitioners, apparently related to the spiritual goal of yoga; from 1971 to 2000 (6.87%), the focus was on yoga in health and therapy; and from 2001 to 2020 (91.88%), research publications on yoga increased and continued to focus on health and therapy, with fewer RCTs relative to the SRs and MAs on yoga in PubMed. Publications on yoga reported the following health conditions most often: from 1981 to 1990, (1) asthma, (2) stress, and (3) diabetes; from 1991 to 2000, (1) stress followed by (2) asthma, anxiety, and pain (all three with equal percentages); from 2001 to 2010, (1) depression, (2) stress, and (3) anxiety; and from 2011 to 2020, (1) stress, (2) depression, and (3) pain. The journals publishing research on yoga in PubMed have changed between 1971 and 2020 as follows: highly clinically relevant, broad-interest medical journals (1971 to 1990); journals relevant to mind-body interventions (1991 to 2000); and specialized journals for complementary and alternative medicine, particular branches of medicine, or research study designs (2001 to 2020). The highest yoga research output from 1971 to 1980 came from the United Kingdom (RCTs); from 1981 to 1990 the most research came from the United States (RCTs); from 1991 to 2000 the most research came from India (RCTs) and the United Kingdom (SRs); from 2001 to 2010 the most research came from the United States (RCTs, SRs) and the United Kingdom (MAs); and from 2011 to 2020 the most research came from the United States (RCTs, SRs, MAs). The trends in yoga research from this analysis reflect increased research related to yoga and health while suggesting areas for future research based on the strengths and gaps that have emerged.

Benefits and adverse effects associated with yoga practice: A cross-sectional survey from India.

OBJECTIVE: Benefits and adverse effects of yoga were reported in surveys from different countries. The present study aimed to (i) determine the benefits and adverse effects of yoga in yoga experienced persons in India and (ii) correlate these effects of yoga with factors related to the individual and their yoga practice. DESIGN AND SETTING: This convenience sampling in-person survey reports benefits and adverse effects of yoga in 3135 yoga experienced persons. RESULTS: The benefits of yoga were reported by 94.5 percent of the respondents. The three most common benefits were improvement in: (i) physical fitness, (ii) mental state and (iii) cognitive functions. An adverse effect of yoga was reported by 1.9 percent of the respondents. The three most common adverse effects reported were: (i) soreness and pain, (ii) muscle injuries and (iii) fatigue. The following factors showed a significant association (in all cases p < 0.05 Chi square test; Cramer's V > 0.10) with reported benefits of yoga: (i) experience of yoga in months, (ii) time spent practicing yoga in a week, (iii) number of yoga techniques practiced, and (iv) whether awareness was maintained during the yoga practice or not. CONCLUSION: Benefits of yoga practice to physical health were the most common, with soreness and pain the most common adverse effect of yoga. Yoga practice related factors influence the benefits of yoga.

Body Temperature in Practitioners of a Yoga Breathing Technique Considered to be Heat Generating.

CONTEXT: Suryabheda pranayama is traditionally described as "increasing the inner fire" and is believed to be heat generating. AIMS: The present study aimed at determining whether the surface body temperature would increase after Suryabheda pranayama practice compared with sitting quietly for the same duration as a control. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Nineteen participants with experience of Suryabheda pranayama practice (group mean experience ± standard deviation, 30.2 ± 22.8 months) were assessed in 3 sessions on separate days. The sessions were (i) Suryabheda pranayama with physiological locks or breath retention, (ii) Suryabheda pranayama without physiological locks or breath retention, and (iii) quiet sitting (control session). The axillary surface body temperature was monitored in all three sessions before (5 min), during (15 min), and after (5 min) the intervention. Ambient temperature and humidity in the recording cabin used for testing were noted. From the ambient temperature and humidity, the heat index was derived. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS: Repeated measures analyses of variance were performed to compare values before, during, and after the 3 sessions, using SPSS version 24.0. RESULTS: The surface body temperature increased during and after Suryabheda pranayama with physiological locks (P < 0.001; P < 0.001), Suryabheda pranayama without physiological locks (P < 0.01; P < 0.001), and quiet sitting (P < 0.001; P < 0.001) compared to the respective before values. CONCLUSION: The control (i.e., quiet sitting) and experimental sessions (i.e., suryabheda with locks and suryabheda without locks) showed a comparable increase in the surface body temperature. Hence, the increase in surface body temperature during and after experimental sessions does not appear to be related to the pranayama techniques. The possible factors which may have contributed to increased surface body temperature in the control and experimental sessions have been discussed.

Body Temperature and Energy Expenditure During and After Yoga Breathing Practices Traditionally Described as Cooling.

BACKGROUND In traditional yoga texts, sheetali and sitkari pranayamas are described as cooling. The present study was aimed at recording the surface body temperature, oxygen consumed, and carbon dioxide eliminated before, during, and after performance of sheetali and sitkari pranayamas. MATERIAL AND METHODS Seventeen healthy male volunteers with ages between 19 to 25 years (average age 20.7±1.8 years) were assessed in 4 sessions, viz. sheetali pranayama, sitkari pranayama, breath awareness and quiet lying, on 4 separate days, in random sequence. The axillary surface body temperature (TRUSCOPE II, Schiller, China) and metabolic variables (Quark CPET, COSMED, Italy) were recorded in 3 periods: before (5 minutes), during (18 minutes), and after (5 minutes), in each of the 4 sessions. The heat index was calculated in the before and after periods, based on recordings of ambient temperature and humidity. Data were analyzed using SPSS (Version 24.0). RESULTS Body temperature increased significantly during sheetali and sitkari (p<0.05, p<0.01; respectively) while it decreased after breath awareness and quiet lying down (p<0.01, p<0.001; respectively) when compared with respective post-exercise states. Oxygen consumption increased by 9.0% during sheetali (p<0.05) and by 7.6% during sitkari (p<0.01) while it decreased significantly during (p<0.05) and after (p<0.01) quiet lying down compared to respective pre-exercise states. CONCLUSIONS The results do not support the description of these yoga breathing practices as cooling. These yoga breathing practices may be used to induce a mild hypermetabolic state.

The impact of yoga on teachers' self-rated emotions.

OBJECTIVES: To assess (i) if teachers' age or gender could predict their baseline levels of mental well-being and anxiety and any change after yoga. (ii) Whether mental well-being or anxiety changed following 15 days of yoga in primary school teachers. Primary school teachers took part in this single group longitudinal trial (n = 302, group mean age ± SD; 41.8 ± 5.90 years). They received 240 min of yoga practice and 120 min of yoga theory each day. At baseline and after 15 days of yoga the assessments were (i) mental well-being (Warwick-Edinburgh scale) and (ii) state anxiety (Spielberger's State Trait Anxiety Inventory). RESULTS: Gender acted as a significant predictor for mental well-being scores (P = 0.001) and state anxiety (P = 0.005) in the group at baseline. Females showed higher anxiety scores and lower mental well-being scores. Following yoga the teachers showed a significant increase in mental well-being by 5.84% and a decrease in state anxiety by 4.48%. Trial registration The trial was registered retrospectively (August 15, 2019; Trial Registration Number: ISRCTN90253431).