A population-based assessment of avoidable hospitalizations and resource use of non-vaccinated patients with COVID-19.

OBJECTIVE: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has precipitated a prolonged public health crisis. Numerous public health protections were widely implemented. The availability of effective and safe vaccines for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) presented an opportunity to resolve this crisis; however, vaccine uptake was slow and inconsistent. This study evaluated the potential for preventable hospitalizations and avoidable resource use among eligible non-vaccinated persons hospitalized for COVID-19 had these persons been vaccinated. METHODS: This was a retrospective, population-based cohort study. The population-at-risk were persons aged ≥ 12 years in Alberta (mid-year 2021 population ~ 4.4 million). The primary exposure was vaccination status. The primary outcome was hospitalization with confirmed SARS-CoV-2, and secondary outcomes included avoidable hospitalizations, avoidable hospital bed-days, and the potential cost avoidance related to COVID-19. The study inception period was 27 September 2021 to 25 January 2022. Data on COVID-19 hospitalizations, vaccination status, health services, and costs were obtained from the Government of Alberta and from the Discharge Abstract Database. RESULTS: Hospitalizations occurred in 3835, 1907, and 481 persons who were non-vaccinated, fully vaccinated, and boosted (risk of hospitalization/100,000 population: 886, 92, and 43), respectively. For non-vaccinated persons compared with fully vaccinated and boosted persons, the risk ratios (95%CI) of hospitalization were 9.7 (7.9-11.8) and 20.6 (17.9-23.6), respectively. For non-vaccinated persons, estimates of avoidable hospitalizations and bed-days used were 3439 and 36,331 if fully vaccinated and 3764 and 40,185 if boosted. Estimates of cost avoidance for non-vaccinated persons were $101.46 million if fully vaccinated and $110.24 million if boosted. CONCLUSION: Eligible non-vaccinated persons with COVID-19 had tenfold and 21-fold higher risks of hospitalization relative to whether they had been fully vaccinated or boosted, resulting in considerable avoidable hospital bed-days and costs.

RéSUMé: OBJECTIF: La pandémie de maladie à coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) a précipité une crise de santé publique prolongée. De nombreuses mesures de protection de la santé publique ont été appliquées à grande échelle. La disponibilité de vaccins sûrs et efficaces contre le coronavirus du syndrome respiratoire aigu sévère 2 (SRAS-CoV-2) a présenté une occasion de résoudre la crise, mais l'acceptation de la vaccination a été lente et inégale. Dans cette étude, nous évaluons le potentiel d'hospitalisations évitables et d'utilisation évitable des ressources pour les personnes non vaccinées admissibles hospitalisées pour la COVID-19, si ces personnes avaient été vaccinées. MéTHODES: Il s'agissait d'une étude de cohorte populationnelle rétrospective. La population à risque était les personnes de ≥ 12 ans en Alberta (~ 4,4 millions au milieu de l'année 2021). Le principal risque était le statut vaccinal. Le principal résultat clinique était l'hospitalisation avec SRAS-CoV-2 confirmé, et les résultats cliniques secondaires étaient les hospitalisations évitables, les jours-lits à l'hôpital évitables et l'évitement potentiel des coûts liés à la COVID-19. La période initiale de l'étude s'est étendue du 27 septembre 2021 au 25 janvier 2022. Les données sur les hospitalisations pour la COVID-19, le statut vaccinal, les coûts et les services de santé provenaient du gouvernement de l'Alberta et de la Base de données sur les congés des patients. RéSULTATS: En tout, 3 835 personnes non vaccinées, 1 907 personnes ayant reçu tous leurs vaccins et 481 personnes ayant reçu des doses de rappel ont été hospitalisées (risque d'hospitalisation p. 100 000 personnes : 886, 92 et 43, respectivement). Pour les personnes non vaccinées, comparativement aux personnes ayant reçu tous leurs vaccins et/ou les doses de rappel, les risques relatifs d'hospitalisation (IC de 95%) étaient de 9,7 (7,9­11,8) et de 20,6 (17,9­23,6), respectivement. Selon nos estimations, les personnes non vaccinées auraient évité 3 439 hospitalisations et 36 331 jours-lits si elles avaient reçu tous leurs vaccins, et 3 764 hospitalisations et 40 185 jours-lits si elles avaient en plus reçu les doses de rappel. Nous avons aussi estimé que les personnes non vaccinées auraient évité des coûts de 101,46 millions de dollars si elles avaient reçu tous leurs vaccins et de 110,24 millions de dollars si elles avaient en plus reçu les doses de rappel. CONCLUSION: Les personnes non vaccinées admissibles ayant contracté la COVID-19 ont présenté un risque d'hospitalisation 10 fois plus élevé que si elles avaient reçu tous leurs vaccins et 21 fois plus élevé que si elles avaient en plus reçu les doses de rappel, ce qui représente des jours-lits à l'hôpital et des coûts évitables considérables.

Return on investment of the lymphoma diagnostic pathway implementation in Alberta, Canada.

The Lymphoma Diagnostic Pathway (LDP) was developed based upon clinical best practice guidelines and implemented in large urban centers where lymphoma treatment is provided in Alberta, Canada. A return-on-investment analysis of the implementation of this care pathway was conducted to inform future sustainability and expansion. A cohort design with propensity score matching and difference-in-difference estimation methods were used comparing both cost and return (reduced health service utilization) between patients who were diagnosed within the LDP and those who were diagnosed outside the LDP. LDP resulted in $1800 avoided HSU costs per patient. The LDP has been found to be cost-saving with an ROI of 5.3 (ranging from 3.95-8.97) - for every $1 invested, LDP resulted in a $5.30 return for the health system due to capacity improvements in ED, inpatient, outpatient, and a reduction in GP service utilization. Further study of implementation including patient/provider satisfaction and uptake is recommended.

Opioid prescriptions and patients' health services utilization and cost before and during the COVID-19 pandemic: an exploratory population-based administrative data analysis.

The objective was to explore percentages of the population treated with prescribed opioids and costs of opioid-related hospitalizations and emergency department (ED) visits among individuals treated with prescription opioids and costs of all opioid-related hospitalizations and ED visits in the province (i.e., provincial costs) before and during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic in Alberta, Canada. In administrative data, we identified individuals treated with prescription opioids and opioid-related hospitalizations and ED visits among those individuals and among all individuals in the province between 2015/16 and 2021/22 fiscal years. Services used were counted on an item-by-item basis and costed using case-mix approaches. Annually, from 9.98% (2020/21-2021/22) to 14.52% (2017/18) of the provincial population was treated with prescription opioids. Between 2015/16 and 2021/22, annual costs of opioid-related hospitalizations and ED visits among individuals treated with prescription opioids were ∼$5 and ∼$2 million, respectively. In 2020/21-2021/22, the provincial costs of opioid-related hospitalizations (∼$14 million) and ED visits (∼$7.0 million) were almost twice the costs observed in 2015/16 and immediately before the pandemic (2019/20). Our findings suggest that increases in the opioid-related utilization of inpatient and ED services between 2015/16 and 2021/22, including the drastic increases observed during the COVID-19 pandemic, were likely driven by unregulated substances.

The Impact of Preoperative Frailty on the Clinical and Cost Outcomes of Adult Cardiac Surgery in Alberta, Canada: A Cohort Study.

BACKGROUND: There is limited information about the impact of frailty on public payer costs in cardiac surgery. This study aimed to determine quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs) and costs associated with preoperative frailty in patients referred for cardiac surgery. METHODS: We retrospectively compared costs of frailty in a cohort of 529 patients aged ≥ 50 years who were referred for nonemergent cardiac surgery in Alberta. Patients were screened preoperatively for frailty, defined as a score of 5 or greater on the Clinical Frailty Scale. The primary outcome measure was public payer costs attributable to frailty, calculated in a difference-in-difference (DID) model. RESULTS: The prevalence of frailty was 10% (n = 51; 95% confidence interval [CI], 7%-12%). Median (interquartile range) costs for frail patients were higher in the first year postsurgery ($200,709 [$146,177-$486,852] vs $147,730 [$100,674-$177,025]; P < 0.001) compared to nonfrail; the difference-in-difference attributable cost of frailty was $57,836 (95% CI, $-28,608-$144,280). At 1 year, frail patients had fewer QALYs realized compared to nonfrail patients (0.71 [0.57-0.77] vs 0.82 [0.75-0.86], P < 0.001), whereas QALYs gained were similar (0.02 [-0.02-0.05] vs 0.02 [0.00-0.04], P = 0.58, median difference 0.003 [95% CI, -0.01-0.02]) in frail and nonfrail patients. CONCLUSIONS: Frailty screening identified a population with greater impairment in quality-of-life and greater healthcare costs. Costs attributable to frailty represent opportunity costs that should be considered in future cardiac surgical services planning in the context of our aging population and the growing prevalence of frailty.

CONTEXTE: Il existe peu de renseignements concernant les répercussions de la fragilité sur les coûts pour les payeurs publics en chirurgie cardiaque. Cette étude visait à déterminer les années de vie pondérées par la qualité (QALY, pour Quality-Adjusted Life-Years) et les coûts associés à la fragilité préopératoire chez les patients dirigés vers un service de chirurgie cardiaque. MÉTHODOLOGIE: Nous avons comparé de façon rétrospective les coûts de la fragilité dans une cohorte de 529 patients âgés de 50 ans ou plus qui ont été dirigés vers un service de chirurgie cardiaque pour une intervention non urgente en Alberta. Un dépistage de la fragilité, définie comme un score de 5 ou plus à l'échelle CFS (Clinical Frailty Scale), a été effectué avant l'intervention. Le principal critère d'évaluation était le coût attribuable à la fragilité pour les payeurs publics, calculé selon un modèle d'écart des différences. RÉSULTATS: La prévalence de la fragilité a été de 10 % (n = 51; intervalle de confiance [IC] à 95 % : 7 à 12 %). Les coûts médians (écart interquartile) dans la première année suivant l'intervention chirurgicale ont été plus élevés chez les patients fragiles que chez les patients non fragiles (200 709 $ [146 177 $ à 486 852 $] contre 147 730 $ [100 674 $ à 177 025 $]; p < 0,001); le coût attribuable de la fragilité selon le modèle d'écart des différences a été de 57 836 $ (IC à 95 % : −28 608 $ à 144 280 $). À 1 an, les patients fragiles avaient moins de QALY réalisées que les patients non fragiles (0,71 [0,57 à 0,77] contre 0,82 [0,75 à 0,86]; p < 0,001), alors que le nombre de QALY gagnées était similaire (0,02 [−0,02 à 0,05] contre 0,02 [0,00 à 0,04]; p = 0,58; différence médiane : 0,003 [IC à 95 % : −0,01 à 0,02]) chez les patients fragiles et non fragiles. CONCLUSIONS: Le dépistage de la fragilité a permis de repérer une population associée à une perte plus importante de qualité de vie et à des coûts plus élevés en soins de santé. Les coûts attribuables à la fragilité représentent des coûts de renonciation qui doivent être considérés dans la planification future des services de chirurgie cardiaque, dans le contexte du vieillissement de notre population et de la prévalence croissante de fragilité.

Assessment of Costs of Avoidable Delays in Intensive Care Unit Discharge.

Importance: Delays in transfer for discharge-ready patients from the intensive care unit (ICU) are increasingly described and contribute to strained capacity. Objective: To describe the epidemiological features and health care costs attributable to potentially avoidable delays in ICU discharge in a large integrated health care system. Design, Setting, and Participants: This population-based cohort study was performed in 17 adult ICUs in Alberta, Canada, from June 19, 2012, to December 31, 2016. Participants were patients 15 years or older admitted to a study ICU during the study period. Data were analyzed from October 19, 2018, to May 20, 2020. Exposures: Avoidable time in the ICU, defined as the portion of total ICU patient-days accounted for by avoidable delay in ICU discharge (eg, waiting for a ward bed). Main Outcomes and Measures: The primary outcome was health care costs attributable to avoidable time in the ICU. Secondary outcomes were factors associated with avoidable time, in-hospital mortality, and measures of use of health care resources, including the number of hours in the ICU and the number of days of hospitalization. Multilevel mixed multivariable regression was used to assess associations between avoidable time and outcomes. Results: In total, 28 904 patients (mean [SD] age, 58.3 [16.8] years; 18 030 male [62.4%]) were included. Of these, 19 964 patients (69.1%) had avoidable time during their ICU admission. The median avoidable time per patient was 7.2 (interquartile range, 2.4-27.7) hours. In multivariable analysis, male sex (odds ratio [OR], 0.92; 95% CI, 0.87-0.98), comorbid hemiplegia or paraplegia (OR 1.47; 95% CI, 1.23-1.75), liver disease (OR 1.20; 95% CI, 1.04-1.37), admission Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation II score (OR, 1.03; 95% CI, 1.02-1.03), surgical status (OR, 0.90; 95% CI, 0.82-0.98), medium community hospital type (OR, 0.12; 95% CI, 0.04-0.32), and admission year (OR, 1.16; 95% CI, 1.13-1.19) were associated with avoidable time. The cumulative avoidable time was 19 373.9 days, with estimated attributable costs of CAD$34 323 522. Avoidable time accounted for 12.8% of total ICU bed-days and 6.4% of total ICU costs. Patients with avoidable time before ICU discharge showed higher unadjusted in-hospital mortality (1115 [5.6%] vs 392 [4.4%]; P < .001); however, in multivariable analysis, avoidable time was associated with reduced in-hospital mortality (adjusted hazard ratio, 0.74; 95% CI, 0.64-0.85). Results were similar in sensitivity analyses. Conclusions and Relevance: In this study, potentially avoidable discharge delay occurred for most patients admitted to ICUs across a large integrated health system and translated into substantial associated health care costs.

Return on Investment of the Primary Health Care Integrated Geriatric Services Initiative Implementation.

BACKGROUND: Since June 2017, the Primary Health Care Integrated Geriatric Services Initiative (PHC IGSI) has been implemented in Alberta, Canada to, among other aims, reduce costs of unplanned health service utilization while maximizing the utilization of available community resources to support people living with dementia living in communities. AIM OF THE STUDY: We performed an economic evaluation of this initiative to inform policy regarding sustainability, scale up and spread. METHODS: We used a cohort design together with a difference-in-difference approach and a propensity score matching technique to calculate impacts of the intervention on patient's health service utilization, including inpatient, outpatient and physician services, as well as prescription drugs. We then used a decision tree to compare between benefits and costs of the intervention and reported net benefits (NB) and return on investment ratios (ROI). We used a health system perspective and a time horizon of 1 year. Both deterministic and probabilistic sensitivity analyses were performed for the uncertainty of parameters. We analyzed real-world data extracted from the Alberta Health Administrative Databases. All costs/savings were inflated to 2019 CAD (CAD 1 \sim = USD 0.75) using the Canadian Consumer Price Index. RESULTS: The intervention reduced the use of hospital (inpatient, emergency, and outpatient) services by increasing the use of community services (physician and prescription drug). As hospital services are expensive, the PHC IGSI community intervention resulted in a NB from CAD 554 to 4,046 per patient-year for the health system, and a ROI from 1.3 to 3.1 meaning that every CAD invested in PHC IGSI would bring CAD 1.3 to 3.1 in return. The probability of PHC IGSI to be cost-saving was 56.4% to 69.3%. IMPLICATIONS FOR HEALTH CARE PROVISION AND USE: The PHC IGSI is cost-effective in Alberta. IMPLICATIONS FOR HEALTH POLICY: The savings would be larger if the initiative is sustained, scaled up and spread because of not only a reduced cost of intervention in the sustainability phase, but also because of the increased number of patients that would be impacted. IMPLICATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH: Future studies taking a societal perspective to also include costs for families and health and social sectors at the community level, would be desirable. Additionally, future works to determine how wellbeing is impacted by the PHC IGSI as vertical and horizontal integration interventions are implemented at the community level, are essential to undertake. Finally, in addition to people living with dementia, the PHC IGSI also supports people living in the community with frailty and other geriatric syndromes, therefore, the cost-savings estimated in this study are likely underestimated.

Return on investment of the diabetes foot care clinical pathway implementation in Alberta, Canada.

AIMS: Based on best practices, the diabetes foot care clinical pathway (DFCCP) has been developed and implemented in several clinics in Alberta, Canada. We performed a return on investment (ROI) analysis of this implementation. METHODS: We used a cohort design comparing both cost and return (in terms of reduced health services utilization, HSU) between diabetes patients who were exposed and who were unexposed, to the intervention. We used a difference-in-difference approach and a propensity-score-matching technique to minimize biases due to differences in demographic and clinical characteristics between two cohorts. We used a 1-year time-horizon and converted all costs/savings to 2019 Canadian dollars (1 CA$ ~= 0.75 US$). RESULTS: The intervention helped avoid $3500 in costs of HSU per patient-year. Subtracting the intervention cost of $500, the net benefit of intervention was $3000 (ranged $2400-$3700) per patient-year. The ROI ratio was estimated at 7.4 (ranged 6.1 to 8.8) meaning that every invested $1 returned $7.4 (ranged $6.1-$8.8) for the health system. The probability of intervention being cost-saving ranged from 99.5-100%. CONCLUSIONS: The implementation of DFCCP in Alberta is cost-saving. A continuation of the pathway implementation at studied clinics and a spread to other clinics are recommended.

Association between strained ICU capacity and healthcare costs in Canada: A population-based cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Intensive care is resource intensive, with costs representing a substantial quantity of total hospitalization costs. Strained ICU capacity compromises care quality and adversely impacts outcomes; however, the association between strain and healthcare costs has not been explored. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Population-based cohort study performed in 17 adult ICUs in Alberta, Canada. Data were captured on hospitalizations, ambulatory care, physician services and drug dispenses occurring 1-year before and 1-year after index ICU admission. Strain was defined as occupancy ≥90%; with 21 additional definitions evaluated. Patients were categorized as strain and non-strain admissions. Costs attributable to strain, were calculated as difference-in-difference costs using propensity-score matching. RESULTS: 30,557 patients were included (strain: 11,830 [38.7%]; non-strain: 18,727 [61.3%]). At 1-year, strain admissions had adjusted-incremental per-patient cost of CA$9406 (95%CI, $5654-13,157) compared to non-strain admissions, due to hospitalization costs (CA$7930; 95%CI, $4553-11,307) and physician claims (CA$844; 95%CI, $430-1259). This equated to CA$111.3 million (95%CI, $66.9-155.6 million) in excess attributable costs. Strain portended longer hospitalization (3.3 days; 95%CI, 1.1-5.5); and more ambulatory visits (1.0; 95%CI, 0.1-2.0) and physician claims (9.5; 95%CI, 6.2-12.7). Incremental costs were robust across strain definitions. CONCLUSIONS: Admissions to ICUs experiencing strain incur incremental costs, attributed to longer hospitalization and physician services.

An Economic Evaluation of the National Surgical Quality Improvement Program (NSQIP) in Alberta, Canada.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to analyze the health care costs and savings associated with quality improvement (QI) interventions initiated and implemented utilizing NSQIP. BACKGROUND: Five acute care facilities of Alberta Health Services (AHS) adopted NSQIP in 2015 for a pilot project. METHODS: The cost-savings of NSQIP were estimated from the start of NSQIP to the end of 2017 under an AHS perspective using this formula: Gross cost-savings = N * (p1 - p2) * unit cost, where N was the number of surgical patients after the intervention, p1 was the probability of event occurrence (within 30 days of surgery) before the intervention, p2 was the probability of event occurrence after the intervention, and unit cost is health care cost per event. To calculate the net cost-savings, we deducted the costs of NSQIP and its interventions from the gross cost-savings. RESULTS: The QI initiatives initiated by NSQIP to reduce surgical events had significant impacts clinically and economically. The gross cost-savings of NSQIP were estimated at $11.4 million. Subtracting the costs of NSQIP and its interventions ($2.6 million) from the gross cost-savings, the net cost-savings were $8.8 million. The return on investment ratio was 4.3, meaning that every $1.00 invested in NSQIP would bring $4.30 in returns. The sensitivity analysis showed the probability for NSQIP to be cost-saving was 95%. CONCLUSION: QI interventions initiated and implemented utilizing NSQIP appear to be effective and cost-saving for AHS. These cost-savings would be even larger if NSQIP was prolonged in the pilot sites and/or expanded to other sites across the province.

Resource Use and Burden of Hospitalization, Outpatient, Physician, and Drug Costs in Short- and Long-term Care After Acute Myocardial Infarction.

BACKGROUND: Little is known about the resource use and cost burden of acute myocardial infarction (AMI) beyond the index event. We examined resource use and care costs during the first and each subsequent year, among patients with incident AMI. METHODS: Patients aged ≥18 years who were admitted with incident AMI at emergency departments or hospitals in Alberta, Canada, between April 2004 and March 2014 were included. Incident cases were defined as those without an AMI hospitalization in the previous 10 years. Inpatient, outpatient, practitioner claims, drug claims, and vital statistics were linked and follow-up data were available until March 2016. Resource use and care costs per patient for each year after the AMI were calculated. RESULTS: The analysis included 41,210 patients with incident AMI (non-ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction [NSTEMI] = 50.8%, ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction = 36.8%, and undefined myocardial infarction [MI] = 12.5%). Resource use and care costs were highest during the first year. Compared with other MI groups, patients with ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction had more frequent outpatient visits (mean 1.64 vs 0.99 [NSTEMI] and 0.87 [undefined MI] visits) but spent fewer days in hospital (mean 7.72 vs 9.23 [NSTEMI] and 8.5 [undefined MI] days) during the first year. AMI costs were $19,842 during the first year and $845 per year for the next 5 years. Hospitalization costs accounted for the majority of costs during the first year (81.1%), whereas drug costs did for the next 5 years (62.1%). CONCLUSIONS: The long-term annual cost burden of AMI is modest compared with care costs during the first year. Although hospitalization dominates first year costs, pharmaceuticals do so in the long term.

The Healthcare Cost Burden of Acute Myocardial Infarction in Alberta, Canada.

OBJECTIVES: Little is known about the cost burden of acute myocardial infarction (AMI) on healthcare systems. Accordingly, we examined the long-term trends of healthcare costs for AMI in the province of Alberta, Canada. METHODS: We linked five Albertan health databases, including ambulatory care, hospitalization, practitioner claims, pharmaceutical information network, and population registry to identify patients with a primary diagnosis of AMI between 2004 and 2013. We used the Alberta Interactive Health Data Application to provide unit costs for ambulatory care and inpatient services, claim paid amounts for physician services, and the Alberta Drug Benefit List for drug prices. Healthcare costs for AMI were grouped into ambulatory care, hospitalization, physician costs, and drug costs. All costs were converted to 2016 Canadian dollar values ($Can). RESULTS: A total of 52,912 patients with AMI were included in the analysis. Patient age decreased over time, as did the proportion of females. AMI cost the Alberta healthcare system Can$1033 million during the study period; of which the largest proportion was hospitalization costs (Can$716.4 million, 63.1%), followed by drug costs (Can$147.2 million, 21.1%), ambulatory care costs (Can$94.5 million, 8.8%) and physician costs (Can$74.9 million, 7.0%). The cost per AMI hospitalization decreased from Can$14,116 in 2004 to Can$11,792 in 2013 (p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Healthcare costs for AMI are significant; however, they decreased slightly during the study period. Hospital services accounted for the largest share of the costs. There are opportunities for further savings in AMI care.

ERAS-Value based surgery.

This paper reviews implementation of ERAS and its financial implications. Literature on clinical outcomes and financial implications were reviewed. Reports from many different surgery types shows that implementation of ERAS reduces complications and shortens hospital stay. These improvements have major impacts on reducing the cost of care even when costs for implementation, and investment in time for personnel and training is accounted for. The conclusion is that ERAS is an excellent example of value based surgery.

Quality of Acute Myocardial Infarction Care in Canada: A 10-Year Review of 30-Day In-Hospital Mortality and 30-Day Hospital Readmission.

BACKGROUND: The recently released Canadian cardiac care quality indicators include 30-day in-hospital mortality and readmission rates after percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) and isolated coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG). We examined long-term trends and provincial variations in these outcomes among acute myocardial infarction (AMI) patients. METHODS: We included patients aged 18 years and older who were hospitalized with a primary diagnosis of AMI between 2004 and 2013 in all Canadian provinces except Quebec. We calculated 30-day in-hospital death and readmission rates after PCI as well as isolated CABG. We used logistic regressions to evaluate baseline-adjusted temporal trends and provincial variations in mortality and readmission. RESULTS: Among 341,001 AMI episodes in 323,862 unique patients, 43.1% and 7% received PCI and CABG, respectively. Mortality after PCI (2.8%) remained stable (odds ratio [OR], 1.01; P = 0.399), whereas mortality after isolated CABG (2.5%) decreased over time (OR, 0.96; P = 0.017). Readmission after PCI (8.8%) increased (OR, 1.06; P < 0.001), whereas readmission after isolated CABG (11.4%) remained stable over time (OR, 0.99; P = 0.116). Compared with Alberta, mortality and readmission after PCI were highest in Saskatchewan (mortality: OR, 1.32; P = 0.001; readmission: OR, 1.24; P < 0.001), whereas mortality after isolated CABG was highest in Newfoundland and Labrador (OR, 2.05; P = 0.010) and readmission after isolated CABG was highest in New Brunswick (OR, 1.49; P = 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: There was no change in mortality, and a slight increase in readmission rates after PCI, and modest improvements in mortality and readmission rates after CABG among AMI patients during the study period. Significant interprovincial variations remained. A stronger focus on pan-Canadian coordination in AMI care and a set of standard benchmarks for AMI-specific PCI- and CABG-related quality indicators are needed.

Benefit of adjunct universal rectal screening for Chlamydia genital infections in women attending Canadian sexually transmitted infection clinics.

Adding universal rectal screening to urogenital screening should positively impact rectal Chlamydia trachomatis (CT) incidence in affected populations. A dynamic Markov model was used to evaluate costs and outcomes of three rectal CT screening strategies among women attending sexually transmitted infection clinics in Alberta, Canada: universal urogenital-only screening (UG-only), additional selected (exposure-based) rectal screening (UG+SR), and additional universal rectal screening (UG+UR). The model included two mutually exclusive health states: infected and susceptible. Additionally, the model included two rounds of transmission: male sex partners of women infected with rectal-only CT and female sex partners of those men. CT complications impacting patients' quality of life (QALY) were considered. Alberta and Canadian data were used to estimate model inputs. We used a health care perspective, a time period of 10 years, and a discount rate of 3% for analyses. Compared to UG-only screening, the incremental cost effectiveness ratios (ICERs) were CA$34,000 and CA$49,000 per QALY gained for UG+SR and UG+UR screening strategies, respectively. Compared to UG+SR, the ICER was CA$62,000 per QALY gained for the UG+UR strategy. Both adjunct selected and universal rectal screening strategies are cost effective compared to UG-only screening, and UG+UR screening is cost effective when compared to UG+SR screening.

Temporal Trends of Reperfusion Strategies and Hospital Mortality for Patients With STEMI in Percutaneous Coronary Intervention-Capable Hospitals.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to examine temporal trends and provincial variations in reperfusion strategies and in-hospital mortality among patients presenting with ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) at hospitals in Canada capable of performing percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI). METHODS: We included patients aged ≥ 20 years who were hospitalized between fiscal years 2009 and 2013 in all provinces except Quebec. We categorized patients as receiving fibrinolysis (lysis), primary PCI (pPCI), or no reperfusion. Patients undergoing lysis were further categorized as (1) lysis + PCI ≤ 90 minutes, (2) lysis + PCI > 90 minutes, and (3) lysis only. Patients undergoing pPCI were further categorized as (1) pPCI ≤ 90 minutes and (2) pPCI > 90 minutes. We used logistic regression to examine the baseline-adjusted association between reperfusion strategy and in-hospital mortality. RESULTS: Among 44,650 STEMI episodes in 44,373 patients, 66.3% received pPCI (annual increase of 7.8%; P < 0.001). British Columbia had the highest (81.4%) rates of pPCI and New Brunswick had the lowest rates (30.2%). In-hospital mortality ranged from a high of 16.3% among patients receiving no reperfusion to a low of 1.9% among patients receiving lysis + PCI > 90 minutes (adjusted odds ratio of 0.42; 95% confidence interval, 0.32-0.55 compared with pPCI ≤ 90 minutes). CONCLUSIONS: The use of pPCI in STEMI has increased significantly in Canada; however, significant interprovincial variation remains. Changes in reperfusion strategies do not appear to have had an impact on in-hospital mortality rates. Patients who underwent lysis followed by PCI in a systematic fashion had the lowest mortality.

The current and future financial burden of hospital admissions for heart failure in Canada: a cost analysis.

BACKGROUND: Heart failure is a costly health condition and a major public health concern. We sought to examine the costs of hospital admissions for heart failure between fiscal years 2004 and 2013 in Canada and to model the future costs to 2030. METHODS: Canadian Institutes for Health Information Discharge Abstract Database was used to identify admissions to hospital with heart failure as the primary diagnosis between fiscal years 2004 and 2013. Multiple linear regression models were used to calculate the trend in prevalence and extrapolate these to 2030. Canadian Institutes for Health Information patient cost estimates were used to identify costs of hospital admissions for heart failure. Generalized linear models were used to estimate average annual costs per heart failure patient. We conducted a sensitivity analysis including all admissions for heart failure in any diagnostic field. RESULTS: In 2013, 45 600 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 43 800-47 200) patients were admitted with heart failure as the primary diagnosis, accounting for $482 (95% CI $464-$500) million. By 2030, we estimate 54 000 (95% CI 49 000-60 000) patients and costs of $722 (95% CI $650-$801) million, with older adults (age ≥ 80 yr) accounting for 52% of costs. Including admissions for which heart failure was a secondary diagnosis increases the total cost to $2.8 (95% CI $2.6-$3.0) billion in 2030. INTERPRETATION: As in other developed countries, hospital costs related to heart failure in Canada are on the rise. Older adults are the main consumers of such hospital services. Strategies to improve outpatient care to reduce rates of admission for heart failure are needed.

Post-Policy Implementation Review of Rapid Fetal Fibronectin (fFN) Testing for Preterm Labour in Alberta.

OBJECTIVES: In 2006, the Alberta Ministry of Health issued a policy to implement fetal fibronectin (fFN) testing as a publicly funded service for pregnant women. The goals were to reduce maternity health care utilization and unnecessary treatment, which would result in cost-savings for the health system by more accurately diagnosing false preterm labour. We conducted a post-policy implementation review to determine whether the policy implementation achieved its goals. METHODS: We assessed the impacts of fFN testing on clinical decision-making for ambulance transfer, hospital admission, and length of hospital stay by comparing these variables between the tested and untested patients. This post-implementation analysis was conducted separately for inpatients and outpatients and for true and false preterm labour, using multilevel regressions with episodes or visits being nested within patients. We then assessed the impact of fFN testing on costs to the health system by using decision-tree models populated with actual data and results from the regressions. RESULTS: The additional information, provided by fFN testing, influenced clinical decision-making. However, physicians placed a greater significance on positive test results than on negative results, which resulted in an inadvertent increase in health care utilization. After including the costs of fFN testing, the total cost to the system increased by $4.2 million (in 2014 Canadian dollars) between 2008 and 2013, with contributions of $700 000 for false labour and $3.5 million for true preterm labour. CONCLUSION: The policy to adopt fFN testing in Alberta did not achieve the intended aims of reducing unnecessary health care utilization to achieve cost-savings for the health system. There was an inherent tendency to err on the side of caution, and physicians were influenced more by positive test results.

Cost Effectiveness of Eplerenone for the Treatment of Systolic Heart Failure with Mild Symptoms in Alberta, Canada.

BACKGROUND: Eplerenone has been demonstrated as being cost effective for the treatment of patients with systolic heart failure (HF) and mild symptoms in several jurisdictions; however, its cost effectiveness is unknown in the context of Alberta, Canada. METHODS: We used a discrete-event simulation model to compare costs and outcomes between standard care and standard care plus eplerenone for the treatment of HF with mild symptoms. We used Alberta data (whenever possible) together with a healthcare perspective, a lifetime horizon, and 3 % annual discount rate for analyses. RESULTS: Clinically, eplerenone prevented HF hospitalizations, atrial fibrillations, and cardiovascular (CV) deaths, but incurred more adverse events and device implantations than standard care. The remaining life of patients receiving eplerenone was 7.08 versus 5.83 years for those receiving standard care. Eplerenone gained 1.25 life-years and 1.18 quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs), with an incremental cost of $Can7200. Therefore, the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) was $Can5700 per life-year gained and $Can6100 per QALY gained. CONCLUSIONS: Given the most cited ICER threshold is $Can50,000, the use of eplerenone as an adjunct to standard care for treating patients with systolic HF and mild symptoms is cost effective in the context of Alberta. Eplerenone would cost the Alberta health system about $Can4.6 million a year in drug costs. Incorporating reductions in health services utilization associated with eplerenone, the budget impact is smaller. For the first year, the use of eplerenone is cost saving and for 5 years the cost is approximately $Can6 million.

An economic evaluation of the Enhanced Recovery After Surgery (ERAS) multisite implementation program for colorectal surgery in Alberta

BACKGROUND: In February 2013, Alberta Health Services established an Enhanced Recovery After Surgery (ERAS) implementation program for adopting the ERAS Society colorectal guidelines into 6 sites (initial phase) that perform more than 75% of all colorectal surgeries in the province. We conducted an economic evaluation of this initiative to not only determine its cost-effectiveness, but also to inform strategy for the spread and scale of ERAS to other surgical protocols and sites. METHODS: We assessed the impact of ERAS on patients’ health services utilization (HSU; length of stay [LOS], readmissions, emergency department visits, general practitioner and specialist visits) within 30 days of discharge by comparing pre- and post-ERAS groups using multilevel negative binomial regressions. We estimated the net health care costs/savings and the return on investment (ROI) associated with those impacts for post-ERAS patients using a decision analytic modelling technique. RESULTS: We included 331 pre- and 1295 post-ERAS patients in our analyses. ERAS was associated with a reduction in all HSU outcomes except visits to specialists. However, only the reduction in primary LOS was significant. The net health system savings were estimated at $2 290 000 (range $1 191 000–$3 391 000), or $1768 (range $920–$2619) per patient. The probability for the program to be cost-saving was 73%–83%. In terms of ROI, every $1 invested in ERAS would bring $3.8 (range $2.4–$5.1) in return. CONCLUSION: The initial phase of ERAS implementation for colorectal surgery in Alberta is cost-saving. The total savings has the potential to be more substantial when ERAS is spread for other surgical protocols and across additional sites.