Protocol for changing gene expression in 3T3-L1 (pre)adipocytes using siRNA-mediated knockdown.

3T3-L1 is a model cell line which can be differentiated from preadipocytes into mature adipocytes. Here, we present a protocol for changing gene expression in 3T3-L1 (pre)adipocytes using small interfering RNA (siRNA)-mediated knockdown. We describe steps to perform the knockdown of a certain gene prior to differentiation (day 4) to analyze the impact on adipogenesis. We then detail procedures for knockdown on day 8 of differentiation to study the role of a certain gene in mature adipocyte function. For complete details on the use and execution of this protocol, please refer to Kaczmarek et al.1.

Dysfunction of the adhesion G protein-coupled receptor latrophilin 1 (ADGRL1/LPHN1) increases the risk of obesity.

Obesity is one of the diseases with severe health consequences and rapidly increasing worldwide prevalence. Understanding the complex network of food intake and energy balance regulation is an essential prerequisite for pharmacological intervention with obesity. G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are among the main modulators of metabolism and energy balance. They, for instance, regulate appetite and satiety in certain hypothalamic neurons, as well as glucose and lipid metabolism and hormone secretion from adipocytes. Mutations in some GPCRs, such as the melanocortin receptor type 4 (MC4R), have been associated with early-onset obesity. Here, we identified the adhesion GPCR latrophilin 1 (ADGRL1/LPHN1) as a member of the regulating network governing food intake and the maintenance of energy balance. Deficiency of the highly conserved receptor in mice results in increased food consumption and severe obesity, accompanied by dysregulation of glucose homeostasis. Consistently, we identified a partially inactivating mutation in human ADGRL1/LPHN1 in a patient suffering from obesity. Therefore, we propose that LPHN1 dysfunction is a risk factor for obesity development.

The adhesion GPCR GPR116/ADGRF5 has a dual function in pancreatic islets regulating somatostatin release and islet development.

Glucose homeostasis is maintained by hormones secreted from different cell types of the pancreatic islets and controlled by manifold input including signals mediated through G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). RNA-seq analyses revealed expression of numerous GPCRs in mouse and human pancreatic islets, among them Gpr116/Adgrf5. GPR116 is an adhesion GPCR mainly found in lung and required for surfactant secretion. Here, we demonstrate that GPR116 is involved in the somatostatin release from pancreatic delta cells using a whole-body as well as a cell-specific knock-out mouse model. Interestingly, the whole-body GPR116 deficiency causes further changes such as decreased beta-cell mass, lower number of small islets, and reduced pancreatic insulin content. Glucose homeostasis in global GPR116-deficient mice is maintained by counter-acting mechanisms modulating insulin degradation. Our data highlight an important function of GPR116 in controlling glucose homeostasis.

Identifying G protein-coupled receptors involved in adipose tissue function using the innovative RNA-seq database FATTLAS.

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) modulate the function of adipose tissue (AT) in general and of adipocytes, specifically. Although it is well-established that GPCRs are widely expressed in AT, their repertoire as well as their regulation and function in (patho)physiological conditions (e.g., obesity) is not fully resolved. Here, we established FATTLAS, an interactive public database, for improved access and analysis of RNA-seq data of mouse and human AT. After extracting the GPCRome of non-obese and obese individuals, highly expressed and differentially regulated GPCRs were identified. Exemplarily, we describe four receptors (GPR146, MRGPRF, FZD5, PTGER2) and analyzed their functions in a (pre)adipocyte cell model. Besides all receptors being involved in adipogenesis, MRGPRF is essential for adipocyte viability and regulates cAMP levels, while GPR146 modulates adipocyte lipolysis via constitutive activation of Gi proteins. Taken together, by implementing and using FATTLAS we describe four hitherto unrecognized GPCRs associated with AT function and adipogenesis.

Adhesion G protein-coupled receptors-Structure and functions.

Adhesion G protein-coupled receptors (aGPCRs) are an ancient class of receptors that represent some of the largest transmembrane-integrated proteins in humans. First recognized as surface markers on immune cells, it took more than a decade to appreciate their 7-transmembrane structure, which is reminiscent of GPCRs. Roughly 30 years went by before the first functional proof of an interaction with a G protein was published. Besides classic features of GPCRs (extracellular N terminus, 7-transmembrane region, intracellular C terminus), aGPCRs display a distinct N-terminal structure, which harbors the highly conserved GPCR autoproteolysis-inducing (GAIN) domain with the GPCR proteolysis site (GPS) in addition to several functional domains. Several human diseases have been associated with variants of aGPCRs and subsequent animal models have been established to investigate these phenotypes. Much progress has been made in recent years to decipher the structure and functions of these receptors. This chapter gives an overview of our current understanding with respect to the molecular structural patterns governing aGPCR activation and the contribution of these giant molecules to the development of pathologies.

Candidate drugs associated with sensitivity of cancer cell lines with DLST amplification or high mRNA levels.

Overexpression of the dihydrolipoamide S-succinyltransferase (DLST) is associated with poor outcome in neuroblastoma patients and triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) and specifically with the oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) pathway. Inhibitors of OXPHOS were previously suggested as a potential therapeutic strategy for a subset of patients with high-risk neuroblastoma. Here, we tested if cell lines with DLST amplifications or high mRNA levels were associated with sensitivity to 250 drugs from the Genomics of Drug Sensitivity in Cancer (GDSC) dataset by comparing them to cell lines without these changes. DLST-altered cell lines were more sensitive to 7 approved drugs, among these obatoclax mesylate, a BCL2 inhibitor that reduces OXPHOS in human leukemia stem cells. Moreover, several protein kinase inhibitors were identified to be efficient in cell lines with DLST amplifications or high mRNA levels, suggesting a vulnerability of DLST-altered cell lines for drugs targeting the ERK/MAPK pathway. Furthermore, increased DLST expression in cell lines with driver mutations in KRAS supported this relationship. We therefore conclude that, in addition to OXPHOS, protein kinases could be potential targets of therapy in the presence of DLST amplifications or high mRNA levels. The new drug candidates proposed here could serve in experimental testing on drug efficacy in knock-in cell lines and DLST-activated tumors.

G protein-coupled receptors as regulators of pancreatic islet functionality.

Glucose homeostasis is maintained by hormones secreted from different types of pancreatic islets and its dysregulation can result in diseases including diabetes mellitus. The secretion of hormones from pancreatic islets is highly complex and tightly controlled by G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). Moreover, GPCR signaling may play a role in enhancing islet cell replication and proliferation. Thus, targeting GPCRs offers a promising strategy for regulating the functionality of pancreatic islets. Here, available RNAseq datasets from human and mouse islets were used to identify the GPCR expression profile and the impact of GPCR signaling for normal islet functionality is discussed.

The relevance of adhesion G protein-coupled receptors in metabolic functions.

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) modulate a variety of physiological functions and have been proven to be outstanding drug targets. However, approximately one-third of all non-olfactory GPCRs are still orphans in respect to their signal transduction and physiological functions. Receptors of the class of Adhesion GPCRs (aGPCRs) are among these orphan receptors. They are characterized by unique features in their structure and tissue-specific expression, which yields them interesting candidates for deorphanization and testing as potential therapeutic targets. Capable of G-protein coupling and non-G protein-mediated function, aGPCRs may extend our repertoire of influencing physiological function. Besides their described significance in the immune and central nervous systems, growing evidence indicates a high importance of these receptors in metabolic tissue. RNAseq analyses revealed high expression of several aGPCRs in pancreatic islets, adipose tissue, liver, and intestine but also in neurons governing food intake. In this review, we focus on aGPCRs and their function in regulating metabolic pathways. Based on current knowledge, this receptor class represents high potential for future pharmacological approaches addressing obesity and other metabolic diseases.

Evaluating the feasibility of Cas9 overexpression in 3T3-L1 cells for generation of genetic knock-out adipocyte cell lines.

Cell lines recapitulating physiological processes can represent alternatives to animal or human studies. The 3T3-L1 cell line is used to mimic adipocyte function and differentiation. Since transfection of 3T3-L1 cells is difficult, we used a modified 3T3-L1 cell line overexpressing Cas9 for a straightforward generation of gene knock-outs. As an example, we intended to generate 3T3-L1 cell lines deficient for adhesion G protein-coupled receptors Gpr64/Adgr2 and Gpr126/Adgr6 using the CRISPR/Cas approach. Surprisingly, all the generated knock-out as well as scramble control cell lines were unresponsive to isoprenaline in respect to adiponectin secretion and lipolysis in contrast to the wild type 3T3-L1 cells. We, therefore, analysed the properties of these stable Cas9-overexpressing 3T3-L1 cells. We demonstrate that this commercially available cell line exhibits dysfunction in cAMP signalling pathways as well as reduced insulin sensitivity independent of gRNA transfection. We tried transient transfection of plasmids harbouring Cas9 as well as direct introduction of the Cas9 protein as alternate approaches to the stable expression of this enzyme. We find that transfection of the Cas9 protein is not only feasible but also does not impair adipogenesis and, therefore, represents a preferable alternative to achieve genetic knock-out.

Orphan GPR116 mediates the insulin sensitizing effects of the hepatokine FNDC4 in adipose tissue.

The proper functional interaction between different tissues represents a key component in systemic metabolic control. Indeed, disruption of endocrine inter-tissue communication is a hallmark of severe metabolic dysfunction in obesity and diabetes. Here, we show that the FNDC4-GPR116, liver-white adipose tissue endocrine axis controls glucose homeostasis. We found that the liver primarily controlled the circulating levels of soluble FNDC4 (sFNDC4) and lowering of the hepatokine FNDC4 led to prediabetes in mice. Further, we identified the orphan adhesion GPCR GPR116 as a receptor of sFNDC4 in the white adipose tissue. Upon direct and high affinity binding of sFNDC4 to GPR116, sFNDC4 promoted insulin signaling and insulin-mediated glucose uptake in white adipocytes. Indeed, supplementation with FcsFNDC4 in prediabetic mice improved glucose tolerance and inflammatory markers in a white-adipocyte selective and GPR116-dependent manner. Of note, the sFNDC4-GPR116, liver-adipose tissue axis was dampened in (pre) diabetic human patients. Thus our findings will now allow for harnessing this endocrine circuit for alternative therapeutic strategies in obesity-related pre-diabetes.

The repertoire of Adhesion G protein-coupled receptors in adipocytes and their functional relevance.

BACKGROUND: G protein-coupled receptors (GPCR) are well-characterized regulators of a plethora of physiological functions among them the modulation of adipogenesis and adipocyte function. The class of Adhesion GPCR (aGPCR) and their role in adipose tissue, however, is poorly studied. With respect to the demand for novel targets in obesity treatment, we present a comprehensive study on the expression and function of this enigmatic GPCR class during adipogenesis and in mature adipocytes. METHODS: The expression of all aGPCR representatives was determined by reanalyzing RNA-Seq data and by performing qPCR in different mouse and human adipose tissues under low- and high-fat conditions. The impact of aGPCR expression on adipocyte differentiation and lipid accumulation was studied by siRNA-mediated knockdown of all expressed members of this receptor class. The biological characteristics and function of mature adipocytes lacking selected aGPCR were analyzed by mass spectrometry and biochemical methods (lipolysis, glucose uptake, adiponectin secretion). RESULTS: More than ten aGPCR are significantly expressed in visceral and subcutaneous adipose tissues and several aGPCR are differentially regulated under high-caloric conditions in human and mouse. Receptor knockdown of six receptors resulted in an impaired adipogenesis indicating their expression is essential for proper adipogenesis. The altered lipid composition was studied in more detail for two representatives, ADGRG2/GPR64 and ADGRG6/GPR126. While GPR126 is mainly involved in adipocyte differentiation, GPR64 has an additional role in mature adipocytes by regulating metabolic processes. CONCLUSIONS: Adhesion GPCR are significantly involved in qualitative and quantitative adipocyte lipid accumulation and can control lipolysis. Factors driving adipocyte formation and function are governed by signaling pathways induced by aGPCR yielding these receptors potential targets for treating obesity.

Exploring G Protein-Coupled Receptor Signaling in Primary Pancreatic Islets.

BACKGROUND: Targeting G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) in pancreatic cells is feasible to modulate glucose-induced insulin secretion. Because pancreatic islets consist of several cell types and GPCRs can couple to more than one G-protein family, results obtained in pancreatic cell lines do not always match the response in primary cells or intact islets. Therefore, we set out to establish a protocol to analyze second messenger activation in mouse pancreatic islets. RESULTS: Activation of Gq/11-coupled receptor expressed in primary ß cells increased the second messenger IP1 in an accumulation assay. Applying a Gq/11 protein inhibitor completely abolished this signal. Activation of the V1 vasopressin and ghrelin receptors, predominantly expressed in the less abundant alpha and delta cells, was not sufficient to induce a significant IP1 increase in this assay. However, fura-2-based fluorescence imaging showed calcium signals upon application of arginine vasopressin or ghrelin within intact pancreatic islets. Using the here established protocol we were also able to determine changes in intracellular cAMP levels induced by receptors coupling to Gs and Gi/o proteins. CONCLUSIONS: Detection of the second messengers IP1, cAMP, and calcium, can be used to reliably analyze GPCR activation in intact islets.

Update of P2Y receptor pharmacology: IUPHAR Review 27.

Eight G protein-coupled P2Y receptor subtypes respond to extracellular adenine and uracil mononucleotides and dinucleotides. P2Y receptors belong to the δ group of rhodopsin-like GPCRs and contain two structurally distinct subfamilies: P2Y1 , P2Y2 , P2Y4 , P2Y6 , and P2Y11 (principally Gq protein-coupled P2Y1 -like) and P2Y12-14 (principally Gi protein-coupled P2Y12 -like) receptors. Brain P2Y receptors occur in neurons, glial cells, and vasculature. Endothelial P2Y1 , P2Y2 , P2Y4 , and P2Y6 receptors induce vasodilation, while smooth muscle P2Y2 , P2Y4 , and P2Y6 receptor activation leads to vasoconstriction. Pancreatic P2Y1 and P2Y6 receptors stimulate while P2Y13 receptors inhibits insulin secretion. Antagonists of P2Y12 receptors, and potentially P2Y1 receptors, are anti-thrombotic agents, and a P2Y2 /P2Y4 receptor agonist treats dry eye syndrome in Asia. P2Y receptor agonists are generally pro-inflammatory, and antagonists may eventually treat inflammatory conditions. This article reviews recent developments in P2Y receptor pharmacology (using synthetic agonists and antagonists), structure and biophysical properties (using X-ray crystallography, mutagenesis and modelling), physiological and pathophysiological roles, and present and potentially future therapeutic targeting.

Genetic basis of functional variability in adhesion G protein-coupled receptors.

The enormous sizes of adhesion G protein-coupled receptors (aGPCRs) go along with complex genomic exon-intron architectures giving rise to multiple mRNA variants. There is a need for a comprehensive catalog of aGPCR variants for proper evaluation of the complex functions of aGPCRs found in structural, in vitro and animal model studies. We used an established bioinformatics pipeline to extract, quantify and visualize mRNA variants of aGPCRs from deeply sequenced transcriptomes. Data analysis showed that aGPCRs have multiple transcription start sites even within introns and that tissue-specific splicing is frequent. On average, 19 significantly expressed transcript variants are derived from a given aGPCR gene. The domain architecture of the N terminus encoded by transcript variants often differs and N termini without or with an incomplete seven-helix transmembrane anchor as well as separate seven-helix transmembrane domains are frequently derived from aGPCR genes. Experimental analyses of selected aGPCR transcript variants revealed marked functional differences. Our analysis has an impact on a rational design of aGPCR constructs for structural analyses and gene-deficient mouse lines and provides new support for independent functions of both, the large N terminus and the transmembrane domain of aGPCRs.

The expanding functional roles and signaling mechanisms of adhesion G protein-coupled receptors.

The adhesion class of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) is the second largest family of GPCRs (33 members in humans). Adhesion GPCRs (aGPCRs) are defined by a large extracellular N-terminal region that is linked to a C-terminal seven transmembrane (7TM) domain via a GPCR-autoproteolysis inducing (GAIN) domain containing a GPCR proteolytic site (GPS). Most aGPCRs undergo autoproteolysis at the GPS motif, but the cleaved fragments stay closely associated, with the N-terminal fragment (NTF) bound to the 7TM of the C-terminal fragment (CTF). The NTFs of most aGPCRs contain domains known to be involved in cell-cell adhesion, while the CTFs are involved in classical G protein signaling, as well as other intracellular signaling. In this workshop report, we review the most recent findings on the biology, signaling mechanisms, and physiological functions of aGPCRs.

Involvement of the Adhesion GPCRs Latrophilins in the Regulation of Insulin Release.

Insulin secretion from pancreatic ß cells is a highly complex and tightly regulated process. Its dysregulation is one characteristic of type 2 diabetes, and thus, an in-depth understanding of the mechanisms controlling insulin secretion is essential for rational therapeutic intervention. G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) have been established as major regulators of insulin exocytosis. Recent studies also suggest the involvement of adhesion GPCRs, a non-prototypical class of GPCRs. Here, we identify latrophilins, which belong to the class of adhesion GPCRs, to be highly expressed in different cell types of pancreatic islets. In vitro and ex vivo analyses show that distinct splice variants of the latrophilin LPHN3/ADGRL3 decrease insulin secretion from pancreatic ß cells by reducing intracellular cyclic AMP levels via the Gi-mediated pathway. Our data highlight the key role of LPHN3 in modulating insulin secretion and its potential as therapeutic target for type 2 diabetes.

P2Y Receptors in Immune Response and Inflammation.

Metabotropic pyrimidine and purine nucleotide receptors (P2Y receptors) are expressed in virtually all cells with implications in very diverse biological functions, including the well-established platelet aggregation (P2Y12), but also immune regulation and inflammation. The classical P2Y receptors bind nucleotides and are encoded by eight genes with limited sequence homology, while phylogenetically related receptors (e.g., P2Y12-like) recognize lipids and peptides, but also nucleotide derivatives. Growing lines of evidence suggest an important function of P2Y receptors in immune cell differentiation and maturation, migration, and cell apoptosis. Here, we give a perspective on the P2Y receptors' molecular structure and physiological importance in immune cells, as well as the related diseases and P2Y-targeting therapies. Extensive research is being undertaken to find modulators of P2Y receptors and uncover their physiological roles. We anticipate the medical applications of P2Y modulators and their immune relevance.

Deciphering and modulating G protein signalling in C. elegans using the DREADD technology.

G-protein signalling is an evolutionary conserved concept highlighting its fundamental impact on developmental and functional processes. Studies on the effects of G protein signals on tissues as well as an entire organism are often conducted in Caenorhabditis elegans. To understand and control dynamics and kinetics of the processes involved, pharmacological modulation of specific G protein pathways would be advantageous, but is difficult due to a lack in accessibility and regulation. To provide this option, we designed G protein-coupled receptor-based designer receptors (DREADDs) for C. elegans. Initially described in mammalian systems, these modified muscarinic acetylcholine receptors are activated by the inert drug clozapine-N-oxide, but not by their endogenous agonists. We report a novel C. elegans-specific DREADD, functionally expressed and specifically activating Gq-protein signalling in vitro and in vivo which we used for modulating mating behaviour. Therefore, this novel designer receptor demonstrates the possibility to pharmacologically control physiological functions in C. elegans.

Using ortholog sequence data to predict the functional relevance of mutations in G-protein-coupled receptors.

Evaluating the functional relevance of naturally occurring gene variants usually requires experimental testing or is even impossible because of the lack of appropriate functional assays. Here we have analyzed whether comparative sequence data from orthologs are suitable to predict the functional relevance of mutations in a model protein, a G-protein-coupled receptor for ADP (P2Y(12)). The functional effect of every possible substitution at each amino acid position within a portion of P2Y(12) (1254 mutants) was individually determined. Sequence analysis of >70 P2Y(12) vertebrate orthologs revealed that this amino acid variability ensuring proper receptor function in vivo highly correlates (>90%) with the in vitro experimental data. Therefore, ortholog sequence data are helpful to predict the functional relevance of individual positions and mutations for P2Y(12). It is likely that similar conclusions may be extended for other GPCRs and conserved proteins as well.