The roles of GpsB and DivIVA in Staphylococcus aureus growth and division.

The spheroid bacterium Staphylococcus aureus is often used as a model of morphogenesis due to its apparently simple cell cycle. S. aureus has many cell division proteins that are conserved across bacteria alluding to common functions. However, despite intensive study, we still do not know the roles of many of these components. Here, we have examined the functions of the paralogues DivIVA and GpsB in the S. aureus cell cycle. Cells lacking gpsB display a more spherical phenotype than the wild-type cells, which is associated with a decrease in peripheral cell wall peptidoglycan synthesis. This correlates with increased localization of penicillin-binding proteins at the developing septum, notably PBPs 2 and 3. Our results highlight the role of GpsB as an apparent regulator of cell morphogenesis in S. aureus.

The Staphylococcus aureus cell division protein, DivIC, interacts with the cell wall and controls its biosynthesis.

Bacterial cell division is a complex, dynamic process that requires multiple protein components to orchestrate its progression. Many division proteins are highly conserved across bacterial species alluding to a common, basic mechanism. Central to division is a transmembrane trimeric complex involving DivIB, DivIC and FtsL in Gram-positives. Here, we show a distinct, essential role for DivIC in division and survival of Staphylococcus aureus. DivIC spatially regulates peptidoglycan synthesis, and consequently cell wall architecture, by influencing the recruitment to the division septum of the major peptidoglycan synthetases PBP2 and FtsW. Both the function of DivIC and its recruitment to the division site depend on its extracellular domain, which interacts with the cell wall via binding to wall teichoic acids. DivIC facilitates the spatial and temporal coordination of peptidoglycan synthesis with the developing architecture of the septum during cell division. A better understanding of the cell division mechanisms in S. aureus and other pathogenic microorganisms can provide possibilities for the development of new, more effective treatments for bacterial infections.

An Interplay of Multiple Positive and Negative Factors Governs Methicillin Resistance in Staphylococcus aureus.

The development of resistance to ß-lactam antibiotics has made Staphylococcus aureus a clinical burden on a global scale. MRSA (methicillin-resistant S. aureus) is commonly known as a superbug. The ability of MRSA to proliferate in the presence of ß-lactams is attributed to the acquisition of mecA, which encodes the alternative penicillin binding protein, PBP2A, which is insensitive to the antibiotics. Most MRSA isolates exhibit low-level ß-lactam resistance, whereby additional genetic adjustments are required to develop high-level resistance. Although several genetic factors that potentiate or are required for high-level resistance have been identified, how these interact at the mechanistic level has remained elusive. Here, we discuss the development of resistance and assess the role of the associated components in tailoring physiology to accommodate incoming mecA.

A manganese photosensitive tricarbonyl molecule [Mn(CO)3(tpa-κ3N)]Br enhances antibiotic efficacy in a multi-drug-resistant Escherichia coli.

Carbon monoxide-releasing molecules (CORMs) are a promising class of new antimicrobials, with multiple modes of action that are distinct from those of standard antibiotics. The relentless increase in antimicrobial resistance, exacerbated by a lack of new antibiotics, necessitates a better understanding of how such novel agents act and might be used synergistically with established antibiotics. This work aimed to understand the mechanism(s) underlying synergy between a manganese-based photoactivated carbon monoxide-releasing molecule (PhotoCORM), [Mn(CO)3(tpa-κ3N)]Br [tpa=tris(2-pyridylmethyl)amine], and various classes of antibiotics in their activities towards Escherichia coli EC958, a multi-drug-resistant uropathogen. The title compound acts synergistically with polymyxins [polymyxin B and colistin (polymyxin E)] by damaging the bacterial cytoplasmic membrane. [Mn(CO)3(tpa-κ3N)]Br also potentiates the action of doxycycline, resulting in reduced expression of tetA, which encodes a tetracycline efflux pump. We show that, like tetracyclines, the breakdown products of [Mn(CO)3(tpa-κ3N)]Br activation chelate iron and trigger an iron starvation response, which we propose to be a further basis for the synergies observed. Conversely, media supplemented with excess iron abrogated the inhibition of growth by doxycycline and the title compound. In conclusion, multiple factors contribute to the ability of this PhotoCORM to increase the efficacy of antibiotics in the polymyxin and tetracycline families. We propose that light-activated carbon monoxide release is not the sole basis of the antimicrobial activities of [Mn(CO)3(tpa-κ3N)]Br.

The Terminal Oxidase Cytochrome bd Promotes Sulfide-resistant Bacterial Respiration and Growth.

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) impairs mitochondrial respiration by potently inhibiting the heme-copper cytochrome c oxidase. Since many prokaryotes, including Escherichia (E.) coli, generate H2S and encounter high H2S levels particularly in the human gut, herein we tested whether bacteria can sustain sulfide-resistant O2-dependent respiration. E. coli has three respiratory oxidases, the cyanide-sensitive heme-copper bo3 enzyme and two bd oxidases much less sensitive to cyanide. Working on the isolated enzymes, we found that, whereas the bo3 oxidase is inhibited by sulfide with half-maximal inhibitory concentration IC50 = 1.1 ± 0.1 µM, under identical experimental conditions both bd oxidases are insensitive to sulfide up to 58 µM. In E. coli respiratory mutants, both O2-consumption and aerobic growth proved to be severely impaired by sulfide when respiration was sustained by the bo3 oxidase alone, but unaffected by ≤200 µM sulfide when either bd enzyme acted as the only terminal oxidase. Accordingly, wild-type E. coli showed sulfide-insensitive respiration and growth under conditions favouring the expression of bd oxidases. In all tested conditions, cyanide mimicked the functional effect of sulfide on bacterial respiration. We conclude that bd oxidases promote sulfide-resistant O2-consumption and growth in E. coli and possibly other bacteria. The impact of this discovery is discussed.

Antimicrobial Activity of the Manganese Photoactivated Carbon Monoxide-Releasing Molecule [Mn(CO)3(tpa-κ(3)N)](+) Against a Pathogenic Escherichia coli that Causes Urinary Infections.

AIMS: We set out to investigate the antibacterial activity of a new Mn-based photoactivated carbon monoxide-releasing molecule (PhotoCORM, [Mn(CO)3(tpa-κ(3)N)](+)) against an antibiotic-resistant uropathogenic strain (EC958) of Escherichia coli. RESULTS: Activated PhotoCORM inhibits growth and decreases viability of E. coli EC958, but non-illuminated carbon monoxide-releasing molecule (CORM) is without effect. NADH-supported respiration rates are significantly decreased by activated PhotoCORM, mimicking the effect of dissolved CO gas. CO from the PhotoCORM binds to intracellular targets, namely respiratory oxidases in strain EC958 and a bacterial globin heterologously expressed in strain K-12. However, unlike previously characterized CORMs, the PhotoCORM is not significantly accumulated in cells, as deduced from the cellular manganese content. Activated PhotoCORM reacts avidly with hydrogen peroxide producing hydroxyl radicals; the observed peroxide-enhanced toxicity of the PhotoCORM is ameliorated by thiourea. The PhotoCORM also potentiates the effect of the antibiotic, doxycycline. INNOVATION: The present work investigates for the first time the antimicrobial activity of a light-activated PhotoCORM against an antibiotic-resistant pathogen. A comprehensive study of the effects of the PhotoCORM and its derivative molecules upon illumination is performed and mechanisms of toxicity of the activated PhotoCORM are investigated. CONCLUSION: The PhotoCORM allows a site-specific and time-controlled release of CO in bacterial cultures and has the potential to provide much needed information on the generality of CORM activities in biology. Understanding the mechanism(s) of activated PhotoCORM toxicity will be key in exploring the potential of this and similar compounds as antimicrobial agents, perhaps in combinatorial therapies with other agents. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 24, 765-780.

The roles of the hybrid cluster protein, Hcp and its reductase, Hcr, in high affinity nitric oxide reduction that protects anaerobic cultures of Escherichia coli against nitrosative stress.

The hybrid cluster protein, Hcp, contains a 4Fe-2S-2O iron-sulfur-oxygen cluster that is currently considered to be unique in biology. It protects various bacteria from nitrosative stress, but the mechanism is unknown. We demonstrate that the Escherichia coli Hcp is a high affinity nitric oxide (NO) reductase that is the major enzyme for reducing NO stoichiometrically to N2 O under physiologically relevant conditions. Deletion of hcp results in extreme sensitivity to NO during anaerobic growth and inactivation of the iron-sulfur proteins, aconitase and fumarase, by accumulated cytoplasmic NO. Site directed mutagenesis revealed an essential role in NO reduction for the conserved glutamate 492 that coordinates the hybrid cluster. The second gene of the hcp-hcr operon encodes an NADH-dependent reductase, Hcr. Tight interaction between Hcp and Hcr was demonstrated. Although Hcp and Hcr purified individually were inactive or when recombined, a co-purified preparation reduced NO in vitro with a Km for NO of 500 nM. In an hcr mutant, Hcp is reversibly inactivated by NO concentrations above 200 nM, indicating that Hcr protects Hcp from nitrosylation by its substrate, NO.

CO-releasing Metal Carbonyl Compounds as Antimicrobial Agents in the Post-antibiotic Era.

The possibility of a "post-antibiotic era" in the 21st century, in which common infections may kill, has prompted research into radically new antimicrobials. CO-releasing molecules (CORMs), mostly metal carbonyl compounds, originally developed for therapeutic CO delivery in animals, are potent antimicrobial agents. Certain CORMs inhibit growth and respiration, reduce viability, and release CO to intracellular hemes, as predicted, but their actions are more complex, as revealed by transcriptomic datasets and modeling. Progress is hindered by difficulties in detecting CO release intracellularly, limited understanding of the biological chemistry of CO reactions with non-heme targets, and the cytotoxicity of some CORMs to mammalian cells.

Ligand uptake in Mycobacterium tuberculosis truncated hemoglobins is controlled by both internal tunnels and active site water molecules.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the causative agent of human tuberculosis, has two proteins belonging to the truncated hemoglobin (trHb) family. Mt-trHbN presents well-defined internal hydrophobic tunnels that allow O 2 and •NO to migrate easily from the solvent to the active site, whereas Mt-trHbO possesses tunnels interrupted by a few bulky residues, particularly a tryptophan at position G8. Differential ligand migration rates allow Mt-trHbN to detoxify •NO, a crucial step for pathogen survival once under attack by the immune system, much more efficiently than Mt-trHbO. In order to investigate the differences between these proteins, we performed experimental kinetic measurements, •NO decomposition, as well as molecular dynamics simulations of the wild type Mt-trHbN and two mutants, VG8F and VG8W. These mutations affect both the tunnels accessibility as well as the affinity of distal site water molecules, thus modifying the ligand access to the iron. We found that a single mutation allows Mt-trHbN to acquire ligand migration rates comparable to those observed for Mt-trHbO, confirming that ligand migration is regulated by the internal tunnel architecture as well as by water molecules stabilized in the active site.

Carbon monoxide-releasing molecule-3 (CORM-3; Ru(CO)3Cl(glycinate)) as a tool to study the concerted effects of carbon monoxide and nitric oxide on bacterial flavohemoglobin Hmp: applications and pitfalls.

CO and NO are small toxic gaseous molecules that play pivotal roles in biology as gasotransmitters. During bacterial infection, NO, produced by the host via the inducible NO synthase, exerts critical antibacterial effects while CO, generated by heme oxygenases, enhances phagocytosis of macrophages. In Escherichia coli, other bacteria and fungi, the flavohemoglobin Hmp is the most important detoxification mechanism converting NO and O2 to the ion nitrate (NO3(-)). The protoheme of Hmp binds not only O2 and NO, but also CO so that this ligand is expected to be an inhibitor of NO detoxification in vivo and in vitro. CORM-3 (Ru(CO)(3)Cl(glycinate)) is a metal carbonyl compound extensively used and recently shown to have potent antibacterial properties. In this study, attenuation of the NO resistance of E. coli by CORM-3 is demonstrated in vivo. However, polarographic measurements showed that CO gas, but not CORM-3, produced inhibition of the NO detoxification activity of Hmp in vitro. Nevertheless, CO release from CORM-3 in the presence of soluble cellular compounds is demonstrated by formation of carboxy-Hmp. We show that the inability of CORM-3 to inhibit the activity of purified Hmp is due to slow release of CO in protein solutions alone i.e. when sodium dithionite, widely used in previous studies of CO release from CORM-3, is excluded. Finally, we measure intracellular CO released from CORM-3 by following the formation of carboxy-Hmp in respiring cells. CORM-3 is a tool to explore the concerted effects of CO and NO in vivo.

The globins of Campylobacter jejuni.

Campylobacter jejuni is a zoonotic Gram-negative bacterial pathogen that is exposed to reactive nitrogen species, such as nitric oxide, from a variety of sources. To combat the toxic effects of this nitrosative stress, C. jejuni upregulates a small regulon under the control of the transcriptional activator NssR, which positively regulates the expression of a single-domain globin protein (Cgb) and a truncated globin protein (Ctb). Cgb has previously been shown to detoxify nitric oxide, but the role of Ctb remains contentious. As C. jejuni is amenable to genetic manipulation, and its globin proteins are easily expressed and purified, a combination of mutagenesis, complementation, transcriptomics, spectroscopic characterisation and structural analyses has been used to probe the regulation, function and structure of Cgb and Ctb. This ability to study Cgb and Ctb with such a multi-pronged approach is a valuable asset, especially since only a small fraction of known globin proteins have been functionally characterised.

The globins of cold-adapted Pseudoalteromonas haloplanktis TAC125: from the structure to the physiological functions.

Evolution allowed Antarctic microorganisms to grow successfully under extreme conditions (low temperature and high O2 content), through a variety of structural and physiological adjustments in their genomes and development of programmed responses to strong oxidative and nitrosative stress. The availability of genomic sequences from an increasing number of cold-adapted species is providing insights to understand the molecular mechanisms underlying crucial physiological processes in polar organisms. The genome of Pseudoalteromonas haloplanktis TAC125 contains multiple genes encoding three distinct truncated globins exhibiting the 2/2 α-helical fold. One of these globins has been extensively characterised by spectroscopic analysis, kinetic measurements and computer simulation. The results indicate unique adaptive structural properties that enhance the overall flexibility of the protein, so that the structure appears to be resistant to pressure-induced stress. Recent results on a genomic mutant strain highlight the involvement of the cold-adapted globin in the protection against the stress induced by high O2 concentration. Moreover, the protein was shown to catalyse peroxynitrite isomerisation in vitro. In this review, we first summarise how cold temperatures affect the physiology of microorganisms and focus on the molecular mechanisms of cold adaptation revealed by recent biochemical and genetic studies. Next, since only in a very few cases the physiological role of truncated globins has been demonstrated, we also discuss the structural and functional features of the cold-adapted globin in an attempt to put into perspective what has been learnt about these proteins and their potential role in the biology of cold-adapted microorganisms.

Microbial eukaryote globins.

A bioinformatics survey of about 120 protist and 240 fungal genomes and transcriptomes revealed a broad array of globins, representing five of the eight subfamilies identified in bacteria. Most conspicuous is the absence of protoglobins and globin-coupled sensors, except for a two-domain globin in Leishmanias, that comprises a nucleotidyl cyclase domain, and the virtual absence of truncated group 3 globins. In contrast to bacteria, co-occurrence of more than two globin subfamilies appears to be rare in protists. Although globins were lacking in the Apicomplexa and the Microsporidia intracellular pathogens, they occurred in the pathogenic Trypanosomatidae, Stramenopiles and certain fungi. Flavohaemoglobins (FHbs) and related single-domain globins occur across the protist groups. Fungi are unique in having FHbs co-occurring with sensor single-domain globins (SSDgbs). Obligately biotrophic fungi covered in our analysis lack globins. Furthermore, SSDgbs occur only in a heterolobosean amoeba, Naegleria and the stramenopile Hyphochytrium. Of the three subfamilies of truncated Mb-fold globins, TrHb1s appear to be the most widespread, occurring as multiple copies in chlorophyte and ciliophora genomes, many as multidomain proteins. Although the ciliates appear to have only TrHb1s, the chlorophytes have Mb-like globins and TrHb2s, both closely related to the corresponding plant globins. The presently available number of protist genomes is inadequate to provide a definitive census of their globins. Bayesian molecular analyses of single-domain 3/3 Mb-fold globins suggest a close relationship of chlorophyte and haptophyte globins, including choanoflagellate and Capsaspora globins to land plant symbiotic and non-symbiotic haemoglobins and to vertebrate neuroglobins.

Gasotransmitters, poisons, and antimicrobials: it's a gas, gas, gas!

We review recent examples of the burgeoning literature on three gases that have major impacts in biology and microbiology. NO, CO and H2S are now co-classified as endogenous gasotransmitters with profound effects on mammalian physiology and, potentially, major implications in therapeutic applications. All are well known to be toxic yet, at tiny concentrations in human and cell biology, play key signalling and regulatory functions. All may also be endogenously generated in microbes. NO and H2S share the property of being biochemically detoxified, yet are beneficial in resisting the bactericidal properties of antibiotics. The mechanism underlying this protection is currently under debate. CO, in contrast, is not readily removed; mounting evidence shows that CO, and especially organic donor compounds that release the gas in biological environments, are themselves effective, novel antimicrobial agents.

Nitric oxide reactivities of the two globins of the foodborne pathogen Campylobacter jejuni: roles in protection from nitrosative stress and analysis of potential reductants.

BACKGROUND: During infection and pathogenesis, Campylobacter, the leading cause of gastroenteritis, encounters NO and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) derived from the host. To combat these species, Campylobacter jejuni expresses two haemoglobins: the single domain haemoglobin (Cgb) detoxifies NO but the role of the truncated globin (Ctb) is unclear. Confirmation of Cgb activity and more extensive exploration of Ctb function(s) in vivo are restricted due to difficulties in expressing proteins in Campylobacter and our lack of understanding of how the globin haems are re-reduced after ligand reactions. METHODS: The cgb and ctb genes were cloned under the control of arabinose-inducible promoters and the globins expressed in an Escherichia coli mutant lacking the main NO detoxification mechanisms (Hmp and the Nor system comprising the transcription regulator NorR, the flavorubredoxin and its reductase (NorVW)); cellular responses under oxidative and nitrosative stress conditions were assessed. Spectroscopic changes of the Cgb and Ctb haems in soluble fractions after oxidation by NO were evaluated. Construction of E. coli nor mutants and a ubiquinone-defective strain allowed the exploration of the flavorubredoxin reductase and the aerobic respiratory chain as candidates for Cgb electron donors in E. coli mutants. RESULTS: Cgb, but not Ctb, complements the NO- and RNS-sensitive phenotype of an E. coli hmp mutant in aerobic conditions; however, Cgb fails to protect an hmp norR mutant in the absence of oxygen. Reduction of Cgb and Ctb in E. coli and C. jejuni soluble extracts and turnover after NO oxidation is demonstrated. Finally, we report a minor role for NorW as a Cgb reductase partner in E. coli but no role for respiratory electron flux in globin redox cycling. CONCLUSIONS: The NO detoxification capacity of Cgb is confirmed by heterologous expression in E. coli. The reducibility of Cgb and Ctb in E. coli and C. jejuni extracts and the lack of dependence of reduction upon flavorubredoxin reductase and the respiratory chain in E. coli argue in favor of a non-specific reductase system. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE: We present the most persuasive evidence to date that Cgb, but not Ctb, confers tolerance to NO and RNS by reaction with NO. Since certain hypotheses for the mechanism of haem re-reduction in E. coli following the reaction with NO are not proven, the mechanisms of reduction in C. jejuni now require challenging experimental evaluation.

Bacterial and archaeal globins - a revised perspective.

A bioinformatics survey of putative globins in over 2200 bacterial and some 140 archaeal genomes revealed that over half the bacterial and approximately one fifth of archaeal genomes contain genes encoding globins that were classified into three families: the M (myoglobin-like), and S (sensor) families all exhibiting the canonical 3/3 myoglobin fold, and the T family (truncated myoglobin fold). Although the M family comprises 2 subfamilies, flavohemoglobins (FHbs) and single domain globins (SDgbs), the S family encompasses chimeric globin-coupled sensors (GCSs), single domain Pgbs (protoglobins) and SSDgbs (sensor single domain globins). The T family comprises three classes TrHb1s, TrHb2s and TrHb3s, characterized by the abbreviated 2/2 myoglobin fold. The Archaea contain only Pgbs, GCSs and TrHb1s. The smallest globin-bearing genomes are the streamlined genomes (~1.3Mbp) of the SAR11 clade of alphaproteobacteria and the slightly larger (ca. 1.7Mbp) genomes of Aquificae. The smallest genome with members of all three families is the 2.3Mbp genome of the extremophile Methylacidiphilum infernorum (Verrumicrobia). Of the 147 possible combinations of the eight globin subfamilies, only 83 are observed. Although binary combinations are infrequent and ternary combinations are rare, the FHb+TrHb2 combination is the most commonly observed. Of the possible functions of bacterial globins we discuss the two principal ones - nitric oxide detoxification via the NO dioxygenase or denitrosylase activities and the sensing of oxygen concentration in the environmental niche. In only few cases has a physiological role been demonstrated in vivo. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Oxygen Binding and Sensing Proteins.

Antarctic bacterial haemoglobin and its role in the protection against nitrogen reactive species.

In a cold and oxygen-rich environment such as Antarctica, mechanisms for the defence against reactive oxygen and nitrogen species are needed and represent important components in the evolutionary adaptations. In the Antarctic bacterium Pseudoalteromonas haloplanktis TAC125, the presence of multiple genes encoding 2/2 haemoglobins and a flavohaemoglobin strongly suggests that these proteins fulfil important physiological roles, perhaps associated to the peculiar features of the Antarctic habitat. In this work, the putative role of Ph-2/2HbO, encoded by the PSHAa0030 gene, was investigated by in vivo and in vitro experiments in order to highlight its involvement in NO detoxification mechanisms. The PSHAa0030 gene was cloned and then over-expressed in a flavohaemoglobin-deficient mutant of Escherichia coli, unable to metabolise NO, and the resulting strain was studied analysing its growth properties and oxygen uptake in the presence of NO. We here demonstrate that Ph-2/2HbO protects growth and cellular respiration of the heterologous host from the toxic effect of NO-donors. Unlike in Mycobacterium tuberculosis 2/2 HbN, the deletion of the N-terminal extension of Ph-2/2HbO does not seem to reduce the NO scavenging activity, showing that the N-terminal extension is not a requirement for efficient NO detoxification. Moreover, the ferric form of Ph-2/2HbO was shown to catalyse peroxynitrite isomerisation in vitro, confirming its potential role in the scavenging of reactive nitrogen species. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Oxygen Binding and Sensing Proteins.

Do globins in microaerophilic Campylobacter jejuni confer nitrosative stress tolerance under oxygen limitation?

The microaerophilic pathogen Campylobacter jejuni possesses inducible systems for resisting NO. Two globins--Cgb (a single-domain globin) and Ctb (a truncated globin)--are up-regulated in response to NO via the positively acting transcription factor NssR. Our aims were to determine whether these oxygen-binding globins also function in severely oxygen-limited environments, as in the host. At growth-limiting oxygen transfer rates, bacteria were more S-nitrosoglutathione (GSNO) sensitive, irrespective of the presence of Cgb, Ctb, or NssR. Pregrowth of cells with GSNO enhanced GSNO resistance, even in nssR and cgb mutants, but transcriptomic profiling of oxygen-limited, NO-exposed cells failed to reveal the NssR regulon. Nevertheless, globin expression in an Escherichia coli mutant lacking the NO-detoxifying flavohemoglobin Hmp showed that Cgb and Ctb consume NO aerobically or anoxically and offer some protection to respiratory inhibition by NO. The constitutively expressed nitrite reductase NrfA does not provide resistance under oxygen-limited conditions. We, therefore, hypothesize that, although Cgb and NrfA can detoxify NO, even anoxically, they are neither up-regulated nor functional under physiologically relevant oxygen-limited conditions and, second, responses to NO do not stem from trancriptional regulation.