Review of ultrasound combinations with hybrid and innovative techniques for extraction and processing of food and natural products.

Ultrasound has a significant effect on the rate of various processes in food, perfume, cosmetic, pharmaceutical, bio-fuel, materials, or fine chemical industries, despite some shortcomings. Combination with other conventional or innovative techniques can overcome these limitations, enhance energy, momentum and mass transfer, and has been successfully demonstrated in many recent studies. Various ultrasound combined hybrid and innovative techniques are systematically summarized in this review for the first time. Ultrasound can be combined with diverse conventional techniques including Soxhlet, Clevenger, enzyme, hydrotropes, ionic liquids, Deep Eutectic Solvents (DES) or Natural Deep Eutectic Solvents (NADES), to enhance mixing and micro-mixing, reduced thermal and concentration gradients, and selective extraction. Moreover, combinations of ultrasound with other innovative techniques such as microwave, extrusion, supercritical fluid, subcritical and pressure liquids, Instant controlled pressure drop (DIC), Pulsed Electric Field (PEF), Ultra-Violet (UV) or Infra-Red (IR) radiations, Counter-current chromatography (CCC), or centrifugal partition chromatographs (CPC) can enable reduced equipment size, faster response to process control, faster start-up, increased production, and elimination of process steps. The theories and applications of these ultrasound combined hybrid and innovative techniques as well as their advantages and limitations are compared, and further perspectives are proposed. This review provides new insights into advances in ultrasound combined techniques and their application at research, educational, and industrial level in modern food and plant-based chemistry.

Microscopic imaging as a tool to target spatial and temporal extraction of bioactive compounds through ultrasound intensification.

Unravelling a chain of events in ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) of bioactive compounds from plants has to start with a detailed description of destructuration at macroscopic and microscopic scale. The present work aims to study the impacts and interactions of UAE on the extreme complexity and diversity of plants structures. Three plant species were selected for their difference in specialized structures and their spatial distribution of secondary metabolites: bitter orange leaf (C. aurantium L.), blackcurrant leaf (R. nigrum L.), and artichoke leaf (C. scolymus L.). Different microscopic techniques (Cyto-histochemistry, stereomicroscopic analysis, Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)) have been used to understand the complexity of plant structures and to highlight ultrasound-induced impacts especially on metabolites storage structures, with a neat comparison with conventional "silent" extraction procedure. The main results indicate that spatial UAE impacts are strongly related to plant structures' properties (morphology, thickness, etc.) and particularly to the nature and the chemical constitution of their storage specialized structures. From a temporal point of view, for all studied leaves, observed mechanisms followed a special order according to structures and their mechanical resistance level to ultrasound (US) treatment. Microscopic mapping of metabolites and structures should be considered as a decision tool during UAE to target intensification process.

Histo-cytochemistry and scanning electron microscopy for studying spatial and temporal extraction of metabolites induced by ultrasound. Towards chain detexturation mechanism.

There are more than 1300 articles in scientific literature dealing with positive impacts of Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction (UAE) such as reduction of extraction time, diminution of solvent and energy used, enhancement in yield and even selectivity, intensification of diffusion, and eliminating wastes. This present study aims to understand what are the mechanism(s) behind these positive impacts which will help to design a decision tool for UAE of natural products. Different microscopic observations (Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Environmental Scanning Electron Microscopy (e-SEM), Cyto-histochemistry) have been used for spacial and temporal localization of metabolites in rosemary leaves, which is one of the most studied and most important plant for its antioxidant metabolites used in food industry, during conventional and ultrasound extraction. The study permits to highlight that ultrasound impacted rosemary leaves not by a single or different mechanisms in function of ultrasound power, as described by previous studies, but by a chain detexturation mechanism in a special order: local erosion, shear forces, sonoporation, fragmentation, capillary effect, and detexturation. These detexturation impacts followed a special order during ultrasound treatment leading at the end to the total detexturation of rosemary leaves. These mechanisms and detexturation impacts were identified in glandular trichomes, non-glandular-trichomes and the layer adaxial and abaxial cuticle. Modelling metabolites diffusion phenomenon during conventional and ultrasound extraction with the second Fick's law allowed the estimation of diffusivities and solvent penetration into the inner tissues and in meantime to accelerate the release of valuable metabolites.

Ultrasound versus microwave as green processes for extraction of rosmarinic, carnosic and ursolic acids from rosemary.

Ultrasound and microwave as green processes are investigated in this study, focusing on the extraction selectivity towards antioxidant extraction from rosemary leaves. Due to its richness in valuable compounds such as rosmarinic, carnosic and ursolic acids, rosemary is a reference matrix for extraction study. In this work, six alternative processes are compared: ultrasound (bath, reactor and probe), microwave (reflux under microwave, microwave under nitrogen pressure and microwave under vapor pressure). The main result of this study is that selective extraction can be achieved according to extraction techniques and therefore to the extraction process.

[How do I assess requirement of a blood bank and its kind for a healthcare establishment?]. / Comment j'évalue la nécessité d'un dépôt de sang et son type pour un établissement de santé ?

Access to blood components is required for healthcare establishments, particularly for emergency situation and hospital blood bank was often a response to this requirement. However, the complexity of regulation and economic pressures lead healthcare establishment to review regularly their need for a blood bank. This assessment requires analysis of need for transfusions in terms of delay, quantity and clinical situations to which they must respond. When a blood bank is required, three kinds could be under consideration: emergency blood bank, intermediate blood bank and issuance blood bank. According to requirements, advantages and disadvantages of each kind, healthcare establishments would select the most suitable one.

[Rhône-Alpes observatory of Streptococcus pneumoniae in 1999: 35 cases of meningitis]. / Observatoire Rhône-Alpes du pneumocoque en 1999: 35 cas de méningites.

In 1999, in Rhône-Alpes region, in a survey of resistance to antibiotics of Streptococcus pneumoniae, 35 cases of meningitis were observed. A retrospectic questionnary was sent to each participant. MICs to Penicillin, Amoxicillin and Cefotaxime were determined with ATB-PNEUMO gallery or E-test and by disk diffusion for the other antibiotics. The results were interpreted according to the recommendations of the CA-SFM. Mean age was 38.1 years (range : 1 month -78 years) and sex-ratio 2/5. Eight patients had previously received antibiotics, 22 patients had risk factors and 23 were transferred in intensive care unit. The patients received C3G + glycopeptide in 15 of 16 children and in 13/19 adults according to the consensus recommendations. Diagnostic was made on the direct examination of CSF in 83%, and blood cultures was positive in 74.3% of cases. The percentage of PRP was 48.6% with 17.1% of intermediate-amoxicilline and 14.3% intermediate-cefotaxime strains. Resistance to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole was 45.7%, to chloramphenicol 30% and to fosfomycin 6.9%. All the strains were susceptible to rifampicin and vancomycin. Among the 17 PRP strains, 7 were belonging to serotype 6 (6 in children). The clinical outcome was fatal in 7 male cases (20%), without risk factors in 3 children and 6 of 7 strains were susceptible to penicillin. Six patients (17%) had auditive and/or neurologic sequellaes. This study shows that nearly 50% of strains isolated in meningitis, in Rhône-Alpes region, were not susceptible to penicillin, and confirms the frequency of sequellaes while the mortality is not related with the resistance of strains to the antibiotics.

[Evaluation of the E-test and the ATB-PNEUMo battery for determining the beta-lactam MIC for Streptococcus pneumoniae in daily practice]. / Evaluation du E-test et de la galerie ATB-PNEUMo dans la détermination des CMI aux bêtalactamines de Streptococcus pneumoniae en pratique quotidienne.

In 1999, during the survey of resistance of Streptococcus pneumoniae to antibiotics by 31 clinical laboratories of Rhône-Alpes area, MIC to penicillin (P), amoxicillin (AMX) and cefotaxime (CTX) of 877 PRP strains or with a diameter of inhibition to oxacillin inferior to 26 mm, were determined by each institution by E-test (n = 220 strains) or ATB-PNEUMO (n = 657 strains). MICs of these three antibiotics were determined by dilution in agar medium by the coordinating center. The essential agreement was respectively for ATB-PNEUMO and E-test 89% versus 84% for P (p > 0.05), of 86% vs 79% for AMX (p < 0.01), and of 91% vs 86% for CTX (p = 0.03). When the strains were classified in clinical category, the differences were significant (p < 0.001) for AMX (85% vs 71%) and for CTX (82% vs 75%) but not for P (73% vs 78%). ATB-PNEUMO method was more sensitive than E-test for the detection of strains susceptible to P (90 vs 73%), to AMX (83 vs 78%) and to CTX (80 vs 72%) and for the strains intermediate to AMX (90 vs 78%). On the contrary, E-test is more specific than ATB-PNEUMO for the detection of P-resistant strains (94 vs 86%). Finally, the specificity of both methods is the same for detection of P-S, AMX-R and CTX-I strains.

A method for micrometer resolution patterning of primary culture neurons for SPM analysis.

In this work we present a method for ultra-fine patterning of primary culture neuron cell growth, which is compatible for scanning near-field optical atomic force microscopy (SNOAM) analysis. SNOAM uses near-field optics to break the fundamental diffraction limit imposed on normal microscopy. SNOAM can achieve sub-100 nm optical resolutions, but requires transparent, open substrates. The ability to do physiological measurements on patterns of neurons, combined with ultra high resolution optical and fluorescent analysis, is useful in the study of long-term potentiation. The patterning method consists of chemical guidance with an element of physical confinement and allows for ultra-fine patterning of neural growth on transparent glass substrates. Substrates consist of microfabricated perfluoropolymer barrier structures on glass. Poly-L-lysine was selectively deposited using a silicone-based microfluidic stencil aligned to the perfluoropolymer/glass substrate. Primary culture neurons were extracted from 8-day-old chicks and grown for 3 days to form good networks. This patterning system shows very specific growth with patterning separations down to the level of individual neurites. Fluorescent imaging was carried out on both cell viability during growth and immuno-tagged microtubule-associated proteins on the neurites. Neurons inside the patterned structures were imaged and analyzed with a tapping mode SNOAM.

TEM/CBED determination of strain in silicon-based submicrometric electronic devices

The convergent beam electron diffraction technique (CBED) of the transmission electron microscopy (TEM) has been employed to determine the strain distribution along a cutline parallel to the padoxide/Si interface in a 0.80 micron wide recessed-LOCOS structure. The values of the components of the strain tensor so obtained have been compared with those computed by two simulator codes. It has been found that both the LOCOS morphology and the strain distribution deduced from TEM images and TEM/CBED patterns, respectively, were in agreement with the simulation results, if some oxidation-related parameters were modified.

[Pneumococcus observatory data in the Rhône-Alps region. Results from 1996]. / Observatoire du pneumocoque en région Rhône-Alpes. Résultats de l'année 1996.

Throughout 1996, 22 hospital-based laboratories in the Rhône-Alpes region of France collected pneumococcal strains and used a standardized protocol to record the following data; patient age and sex; type of specimen; and determination of susceptibility to at least the following antibiotics: oxacillin 1 microgram and 5 micrograms, erythromycin (Ery), tetracycline (Tet), chloramphenicol (Chl), rifampin (Rmp), and loracarbef. For penicillin-nonsusceptible strains (PNSSs), which were identified based on results with oxacillin, MICs for penicillin G, amoxicillin (Amx), and cefotaxime (Ctx) were determined using the E Test, at the study site and agar dilution at the coordinating center. Of the 1153 strains, 65.5% were from adults and 31.8% from children; patient age was unknown in 2.7% of cases. PNSPs (MIC > 0.06 mg/l) contributed 32.9% of strains (I: 23.3%; R: 9.6%) and were more common in children (41.1%) than in adults (28.1%). The frequency of PNSSs varied across specimen types: 27.9% in blood cultures (305 strains), 15.6% in cerebrospinal fluid (32), 38.7% in protected bronchopulmonary specimens (31), 31.5% in unprotected bronchopulmonary specimens (434), 50.8% in acute otitis media (118), and 34.4% in other specimens (221). Among PNSSs, nonsusceptibility (I + R) to other antibiotics was variable: Ery, 62.1%; Tet, 41.5%; Chl, 40.4%; Rmp, 1.1%. Corresponding figures for the overall strain population were Ery, 33.3%; Tet, 22.7%; Chl, 22.8%; Rmp, 0.9%. In addition, 56.5% of PNSSs exhibited multiple drug resistance. Resistance to amoxicillin (MIC > 2 mg/l) was demonstrated for only 5 strains. No strains were resistant to loracarbef or cefotaxime. Serotypes of the 379 PNSSs were as follows: 23F, 26.6%; 14 (25.6%); 9V (18.2%), 6 (8.7%), 15 (5%), 19 (4.5%).

[Comparison of the results of the Etest and the method for determining minimum inhibitory concentrations in solid media for penicillin G, amoxicillin, and cefotaxime for S. pneumoniae. A multicenter study]. / Comparaison des résultats du Etest et de la méthode de détermination des concentrations minimales inhibitrices en milieu solide pour la pénicilline G, l'amoxicilline et le céfotaxime chez S. pneumoniae. Une étude multicentrique.

In 1996-1997 a multicentre study was carried out on 450 Streptococcus pneumoniae strains to compare the MICs and susceptibility categories obtained with the Etest (AB Biodisk) used under routine conditions in 22 hospital laboratories in the Rhône-Alpes region, France, with those obtained by the reference technique of agar dilution performed in a single coordinating centre. Each laboratory detected penicillin resistant pneumococci (PRP) by the oxacillin disk method (1 microgram and 5 micrograms) and determined the MICs of penicillin G (PG), amoxycillin (AMX) and cefotaxime (CTX) by the Etest. All the PRP strains were collected in the coordinating centre where MICs were carried out. The strains were classified as susceptible (S), intermediate (I) and resistant (R) according to the CASFM criteria (Comité de l'Antibiogramme de la Société Française de Microbiologie). The concordance results based on susceptibility categories are as follows: PG = 67.6%, AMX = 63.6%, CTX = 71.5%. Minor errors are as follows: PG = 31.2%, AMX = 36%, CTX = 28.5%. Major and very major errors are rare (0% to 0.6%). Agreement within 1 log2 dilution was obtained for about 80% of the strains. The minor errors results from strains clustering near the breakpoints 1 mg/l (PG) and 0.5 mg/l (AMX, CTX), and from practical difficulties in routine use of the Etest. These discrepancies may result in severe therapeutic problems. This study confirms the limits of the Etest. The authors insist on standardization and rigorous use of the Etest under routine conditions.

[Experimental study of the effects of cyaninoside chloride on collagen, and its potential value in ophthalmology]. / Etude expérimentale des effets du chlorure de cyaninosides sur le collagène, intérêt potentiel en ophtalmologie.

Cyaninoside chloride is a drug used in the treatment of visual functional troubles in low-luminance conditions, in patients suffering from myopia and night blindness. Its effects on the enzymatic degradation of collagen by collagenase have been studied by means of two experimental models: collagen-collagenase diffusion plates, in vitro, permeabilization of the blood-brain barrier by collagenase, in rats, in vivo. The results obtained point out that cyaninosides chloride protects the collagen against the enzymatic attack due to collagenase. In the light of these results, it is possible to propose a mechanism for the action of this drug on the external blood-retinal barrier.