Development of a two-dimensional LC-MS/MS system for the determination of proline and 4-hydroxyproline enantiomers in biological and food samples.

A two-dimensional LC-MS/MS system has been developed for the enantioselective determination of proline (Pro), cis-4-hydroxyproline (cis-4-Hyp) and trans-4-hydroxyproline (trans-4-Hyp) in a variety of biological samples. The amino acids were pre-column derivatized with 4-fluoro-7-nitro-2,1,3-benzoxadiazole (NBD-F), and the NBD-derivatives were separated by a reversed-phase column (Singularity RP18) as their D plus L mixtures in the first dimension. The collected target fractions were then introduced into the second dimension where the enantiomers were separated by a Pirkle-type enantioselective column (Singularity CSP-001S) and determined by a tandem mass spectrometer (Triple Quad™ 5500). The method was validated by the standard amino acids and also by human plasma, and sufficient results were obtained for the calibration, precision and accuracy. The method was applied to human plasma and urine, bivalve tissues and fermented food/beverages. D-Pro was widely found in the human physiological fluids, bivalves and several fermented products. Although trans-4-D-Hyp was not found in all the tested samples, cis-4-D-Hyp was present in human urine and tissues of the ark shell, and further studies focusing on the origin and physiological significance of these D-enantiomers are expected.

Evaluation of psychological stress in confined environments using salivary, skin, and facial image parameters.

Detecting the influence of psychological stress is particularly important in prolonged space missions. In this study, we determined potential markers of psychological stress in a confined environment. We examined 23 Japanese subjects staying for 2 weeks in a confined facility at Tsukuba Space Center, measuring salivary, skin, and facial image parameters. Saliva was collected at four points in a single day to detect diurnal variation. Increases in salivary cortisol were detected after waking up on the 4th and 11th days, and at 15:30 on the 1st and in the second half of the stay. Transepidermal water loss (TEWL) and sebum content of the skin were higher compared with outside the facility on the 4th and 1st days respectively. Increased IL-1ß in the stripped stratum corneum was observed on the 14th day, and 7 days after leaving. Differences in facial expression symmetry at the time of facial expression changes were observed on 11th and 14th days. Thus, we detected a transition of psychological stress using salivary cortisol profiles and skin physiological parameters. The results also suggested that IL-1ß in the stripped stratum corneum and facial expression symmetry are possible novel markers for conveniently detecting psychological stress.

Ischemic acute kidney injury perturbs homeostasis of serine enantiomers in the body fluid in mice: early detection of renal dysfunction using the ratio of serine enantiomers.

The imbalance of blood and urine amino acids in renal failure has been studied mostly without chiral separation. Although a few reports have shown the presence of D-serine, an enantiomer of L-serine, in the serum of patients with severe renal failure, it has remained uncertain how serine enantiomers are deranged in the development of renal failure. In the present study, we have monitored serine enantiomers using a two-dimensional HPLC system in the serum and urine of mice after renal ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI), known as a mouse model of acute kidney injury. In the serum, the level of D-serine gradually increased after renal IRI in parallel with that of creatinine, whereas the L-serine level decreased sharply in the early phase after IRI. The increase of D-serine was suppressed in part by genetic inactivation of a D-serine-degrading enzyme, D-amino acid oxidase (DAO), but not by disruption of its synthetic enzyme, serine racemase, in mice. Renal DAO activity was detected exclusively in proximal tubules, and IRI reduced the number of DAO-positive tubules. On the other hand, in the urine, D-serine was excreted at a rate nearly triple that of L-serine in mice with sham operations, indicating that little D-serine was reabsorbed while most L-serine was reabsorbed in physiological conditions. IRI significantly reduced the ratio of urinary D-/L-serine from 2.82 ± 0.18 to 1.10 ± 0.26 in the early phase and kept the ratio lower than 0.5 thereafter. The urinary D-/L-serine ratio can detect renal ischemia earlier than kidney injury molecule-1 (KIM-1) or neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) in the urine, and more sensitively than creatinine, cystatin C, or the ratio of D-/L-serine in the serum. Our findings provide a novel understanding of the imbalance of amino acids in renal failure and offer a potential new biomarker for an early detection of acute kidney injury.

Localization of serine racemase and its role in the skin.

D-serine is an endogenous coagonist of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)-type glutamate receptor in the central nervous system and its synthesis is catalyzed by serine racemase (SR). Recently, the NMDA receptor has been found to be expressed in keratinocytes (KCs) of the skin and involved in the regulation of KC growth and differentiation. However, the localization and role of SR in the skin remain unknown. Here, using SR-knockout (SR-KO) mice as the control, we demonstrated the localization of the SR protein in the granular and cornified layer of the epidermis of wild-type (WT) mice and its appearance in confluent WT KCs. We also demonstrated the existence of a mechanism for conversion of L-serine to D-serine in epidermal KCs. Furthermore, we found increased expression levels of genes involved in the differentiation of epidermal KCs in adult SR-KO mice, and alterations in the barrier function and ultrastructure of the epidermis in postnatal day 5 SR-KO mice. Our findings suggest that SR in the skin epidermis is involved in the differentiation of epidermal KCs and the formation of the skin barrier.

Alteration of intrinsic amounts of D-serine in the mice lacking serine racemase and D-amino acid oxidase.

For elucidation of the regulation mechanisms of intrinsic amounts of D-serine (D-Ser) which modulates the neuro-transmission of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors in the brain, mutant animals lacking serine racemase (SRR) and D-amino acid oxidase (DAO) were established, and the amounts of D-Ser in the tissues and physiological fluids were determined. D-Ser amounts in the frontal brain areas were drastically decreased followed by reduced SRR activity. On the other hand, a moderate but significant decrease in D-Ser amounts was observed in the cerebellum and spinal cord of SRR knock-out (SRR(-/-)) mice compared with those of control mice, although the amounts of D-Ser in these tissues were low. The amounts of D-Ser in the brain and serum were not altered with aging. To clarify the uptake of exogenous D-Ser into the brain tissues, we have determined the D-Ser of SRR(-/-) mice after oral administration of D-Ser for the first time, and a drastic increase in D-Ser amounts in all the tested tissues was observed. Because both DAO and SRR are present in some brain areas, we have established the double mutant mice lacking SRR and DAO for the first time, and the contribution of both enzymes to the intrinsic D-Ser amounts was investigated. In the frontal brain, most of the intrinsic D-Ser was biosynthesized by SRR. On the other hand, half of the D-Ser present in the hindbrain was derived from the biosynthesis by SRR. These results indicate that the regulation of intrinsic D-Ser amounts is different depending on the tissues and provide useful information for the development of treatments for neuronal diseases.

Simultaneous determination of D-aspartic acid and D-glutamic acid in rat tissues and physiological fluids using a multi-loop two-dimensional HPLC procedure.

For a metabolomics study focusing on the analysis of aspartic and glutamic acid enantiomers, a fully automated two-dimensional HPLC system employing a microbore-ODS column and a narrowbore-enantioselective column was developed. By using this system, a detailed distribution of D-Asp and D-Glu besides L-Asp and L-Glu in mammals was elucidated. For the total analysis concept, the amino acids were first pre-column derivatized with 4-fluoro-7-nitro-2,1,3-benzoxadiazole (NBD-F) to be sensitively and fluorometrically detected. For the non-stereoselective separation of the analytes in the first dimension a monolithic ODS column (750 mm × 0.53 mm i.d.) was adopted, and a self-packed narrowbore-Pirkle type enantioselective column (Sumichiral OA-2500S, 250 mm × 1.5 mm i.d.) was selected for the second dimension. In the rat plasma, RSD values for intra-day and inter-day precision were less than 6.8%, and the accuracy ranged between 96.1% and 105.8%. The values of LOQ of D-Asp and D-Glu were 5 fmol/injection (0.625 nmol/g tissue). The present method was successfully applied to the simultaneous determination of free aspartic acid and glutamic acid enantiomers in 7 brain areas, 11 peripheral tissues, plasma and urine of Wistar rats. Biologically significant D-Asp values were found in various tissue samples whereas for D-Glu the values were very low possibly indicating less significance.

Simultaneous two-dimensional HPLC determination of free D-serine and D-alanine in the brain and periphery of mutant rats lacking D-amino-acid oxidase.

A fully automated two-dimensional HPLC system combining a microbore-ODS column and a narrowbore-enantioselective column was designed and validated, and the amounts of D-serine (D-Ser) and D-alanine (D-Ala) in various tissues and physiological fluids of Long-Evans agouti/SENDAI (LEA/Sen) rats lacking D-amino-acid oxidase (DAO) were determined. Intra- and inter-day precision was less than 4.3% and accuracy ranged between 99.9 and 104%. LEA/Sen rats were reported to lack DAO in their kidneys and expected to be a novel mutant animal lacking DAO, however, the amounts of D-amino acids in the LEA/Sen rats have not been investigated. In the present study, the intrinsic amounts of D-Ser and D-Ala, which are neuromodulators of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors, were determined in seven brain tissues, four peripheral tissues, plasma and urine of the LEA/Sen rats and compared to those of the control (Wistar and SD) rats having normal DAO activity. The levels of D-Ser in the tissues and physiological fluids of the LEA/Sen rats were significantly higher than those of the Wistar and SD rats except for the frontal brain regions. Concerning D-Ala, the amounts in the tissues and physiological fluids of the LEA/Sen rats were drastically increased compared to those of the Wistar and SD rats. These results indicate that the intrinsic amounts of D-Ser and D-Ala in the tissues of rats are regulated by DAO, and that LEA/Sen rats would be useful for the study of NMDA receptor-related diseases in which DAO is implicated.

Analysis of small amounts of D-amino acids and the study of their physiological functions in mammals.

D-amino acids, the enantiomers of L-amino acids, are candidates to be novel physiologically active substances and the biomarkers in mammals. However, the amounts of D-amino acids in the tissues and physiological fluids are extremely small in most cases, and sensitive and selective analytical methods are needed for their determination. In the present manuscript, we review the analytical technologies including our recent advances for the determinations of small amounts of D-amino acids in mammals and the applications to clarify their physiological meanings.

Determination of D-serine and D-alanine in the tissues and physiological fluids of mice with various D-amino-acid oxidase activities using two-dimensional high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection.

Two-dimensional-HPLC procedures have been established for the sensitive and selective determination of D-serine (D-Ser) and D-alanine (D-Ala), and their amounts in the tissues and physiological fluids of mice with various D-amino-acid oxidase (DAO) activities have been demonstrated. These two D-amino acids are modulators of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor mediated neurotransmission, and the alterations in their amounts following the changes in the DAO activity are matters of interest. After pre-column derivatization with 4-fluoro-7-nitro-2,1,3-benzoxadiazole (NBD-F), the D-amino acids were determined by the 2D-HPLC system with fluorescence detectors. As the first dimension, a microbore-monolithic-ODS column (750 mm x 0.53 mm I.D.) was adopted and a self-packed narrowbore-Pirkle type enantioselective column (Sumichiral OA-2500S, 250 mm x 1.5 mm I.D.) was selected for the second dimension. The lower limits of quantitation of D-Ser and D-Ala were 500 amol, and the within-day and day-to-day precisions were less than 6.8%. Using these methods, the amounts of D-Ser and D-Ala in 6 brain tissues, 4 peripheral tissues, serum and urine of mice having various DAO activities were determined; the amounts of these D-amino acids were drastically increased with a lowering of the DAO activity except for the cases of D-Ser in the frontal brain regions. The present micro-2D-HPLC procedures are powerful tools for the determination of small amounts of D-Ser and D-Ala in mammalian samples, and the obtained results would be useful for developing novel drugs that modulate the DAO activity, such as DAO inhibitors, against neuronal diseases.

Simple and rapid genotyping of D-amino acid oxidase gene recognizing a crucial variant in the ddY strain using microchip electrophoresis.

A rapid genotyping method of D-amino acid oxidase (DAO), an enzyme that catalyzes the oxidative degradation of most of the D-amino acids in mammals, has been established. This method employs a one-step PCR, restriction enzyme digestion and rapid microchip electrophoresis (MCE), and the DAO genotype of the living individual mice was definitely determined within a day by clearly separating the 95 and 107 bp Hpa II digested DNA fragments. For verification of the method, the DAO activity in the kidney of individual mice was also determined, and the obtained values completely matched the estimated genotypes (DAO(+/+), DAO(+/-), and DAO(-/-)). The intrinsic amounts of D-Pro in the serum and kidney of mice with three DAO genotypes were compared for the first time, and demonstrated that the D-amino acid amounts in the DAO(+/+) mice (1.93 +/- 0.66 nmol/mL serum, not detectable in the kidney) and DAO(+/-) mice (1.50 +/- 0.24 nmol/mL serum, not detectable in the kidney) were almost the same. The present method should be a powerful tool to establish various pathologic-model animals under the complete care of their intrinsic DAO activity, which are useful for the screening of D-amino acids having physiological activity and/or diagnostic values.

Automated and simultaneous two-dimensional micro-high-performance liquid chromatographic determination of proline and hydroxyproline enantiomers in mammals.

A fully automated 2D-HPLC system employing a microbore-ODS column and a narrowbore-enantioselective column has been developed for the simultaneous enantiomer determination of proline, trans-4-hydroxyproline and cis-4-hydroxyproline in mammals. As a first dimension, a monolithic ODS column of 0.53 mm i.d. showed 3-6 times larger theoretical plate numbers than those of particle-packed ODS columns, and the best enantioseparations were obtained by a Chiralpak QN-2-AX column of 1.5 mm i.d. in the second dimension (separation factors: 1.44-1.83). The R.S.D. values for within-day and dayto-day precisions were less than 5.8%, and the lower limits of quantitation for the D-enantiomers were 1 fmol. The present method was successfully applied to the determination of proline and hydroxyproline enantiomers in the serum and collagen-rich skin tissue. Small amounts of D-proline were found both in the serum (1.57 +/- 0.19 nmol/mL) and in the skin (0.093 +/- 0.015 nmol/mg protein), while the amounts of D-hydroxyproline were smaller than the lower limit of quantitation.