A Rapid Review of the Impact of Systems-Level Policies and Interventions on Population-Level Outcomes Related to the Opioid Epidemic, United States and Canada, 2014-2018.

OBJECTIVES: In the United States, rising rates of overdose deaths and recent outbreaks of hepatitis C virus and HIV infection are associated with injection drug use. We updated a 2014 review of systems-level opioid policy interventions by focusing on evidence published during 2014-2018 and new and expanded opioid policies. METHODS: We searched the MEDLINE database, consistent with the 2014 review. We included articles that provided original empirical evidence on the effects of systems-level interventions on opioid use, overdose, or death; were from the United States or Canada; had a clear comparison group; and were published from January 1, 2014, through July 19, 2018. Two raters screened articles and extracted full-text data for qualitative synthesis of consistent or contradictory findings across studies. Given the rapidly evolving field, the review was supplemented with a search of additional articles through November 17, 2019, to assess consistency of more recent findings. RESULTS: The keyword search yielded 535 studies, 66 of which met inclusion criteria. The most studied interventions were prescription drug monitoring programs (PDMPs) (59.1%), and the least studied interventions were clinical guideline changes (7.6%). The most common outcome was opioid use (77.3%). Few articles evaluated combination interventions (18.2%). Study findings included the following: PDMP effectiveness depends on policy design, with robust PDMPs needed for impact; health insurer and pharmacy benefit management strategies, pill-mill laws, pain clinic regulations, and patient/health care provider educational interventions reduced inappropriate prescribing; and marijuana laws led to a decrease in adverse opioid-related outcomes. Naloxone distribution programs were understudied, and evidence of their effectiveness was mixed. In the evidence published after our search's 4-year window, findings on opioid guidelines and education were consistent and findings for other policies differed. CONCLUSIONS: Although robust PDMPs and marijuana laws are promising, they do not target all outcomes, and multipronged interventions are needed. Future research should address marijuana laws, harm-reduction interventions, health insurer policies, patient/health care provider education, and the effects of simultaneous interventions on opioid-related outcomes.

Factors associated with incomplete toxicology reporting in drug overdose deaths, 2010-2016.

PURPOSE: Classification of overdose deaths is often geographically and demographically inconsistent. Incomplete surveillance records may distort estimates of drug overdose rates across time and place. We examined incomplete toxicology reporting among drug overdose decedents by demographic and geographic characteristics, measuring changes in missingness rates and their associations with decedent characteristics over time. METHODS: We estimated the percentage of overdose deaths reported in the National Vital Statistics System with missing toxicology results from 2010 to 2016, overall and by decedents' demographic and geographic characteristics. Multilevel logistic regression models evaluated prevalence of missingness by decedent characteristics, accounting for geographic clustering. RESULTS: Overall, 20.3% of death certificates did not indicate a specific drug, declining from 24.4% in 2010 to 14.6% in 2016. Deaths were less likely to have missing information if they occurred in counties with medical examiners versus coroners. Female decedents were more likely to have missing information than males, as were non-Hispanic whites compared with Hispanics and non-Hispanic blacks. CONCLUSIONS: The percentage of deaths with missing toxicology information declined over time, but demographic and geographic differences in missingness persist. This yields detection biases that skew temporal trends and understanding of groups impacted by the opioid epidemic.