Genomic insights of body plan transitions from bilateral to pentameral symmetry in Echinoderms.

Echinoderms are an exceptional group of bilaterians that develop pentameral adult symmetry from a bilaterally symmetric larva. However, the genetic basis in evolution and development of this unique transformation remains to be clarified. Here we report newly sequenced genomes, developmental transcriptomes, and proteomes of diverse echinoderms including the green sea urchin (L. variegatus), a sea cucumber (A. japonicus), and with particular emphasis on a sister group of the earliest-diverged echinoderms, the feather star (A. japonica). We learned that the last common ancestor of echinoderms retained a well-organized Hox cluster reminiscent of the hemichordate, and had gene sets involved in endoskeleton development. Further, unlike in other animal groups, the most conserved developmental stages were not at the body plan establishing phase, and genes normally involved in bilaterality appear to function in pentameric axis development. These results enhance our understanding of the divergence of protostomes and deuterostomes almost 500 Mya.

Ca²âº influx-linked protein kinase C activity regulates the ß-catenin localization, micromere induction signalling and the oral-aboral axis formation in early sea urchin embryos.

Sea urchin embryos initiate cell specifications at the 16-cell stage by forming the mesomeres, macromeres and micromeres according to the relative position of the cells in the animal-vegetal axis. The most vegetal cells, micromeres, autonomously differentiate into skeletons and induce the neighbouring macromere cells to become mesoendoderm in the ß-catenin-dependent Wnt8 signalling pathway. Although the underlying molecular mechanism for this progression is largely unknown, we have previously reported that the initial events might be triggered by the Ca2+ influxes through the egg-originated L-type Ca2+ channels distributed asymmetrically along the animal-vegetal axis and through the stretch-dependent Ca2+channels expressed specifically in the micromere at the 4th cleavage. In this communication, we have examined whether one of the earliest Ca2+ targets, protein kinase C (PKC), plays a role in cell specification upstream of ß-catenin. To this end, we surveyed the expression pattern of ß-catenin in early embryos in the presence or absence of the specific peptide inhibitor of Hemicentrotus pulcherrimus PKC (HpPKC-I). Unlike previous knowledge, we have found that the initial nuclear entrance of ß-catenin does not take place in the micromeres, but in the macromeres at the 16-cell stage. Using the HpPKC-I, we have demonstrated further that PKC not only determines cell-specific nucleation of ß-catenin, but also regulates a variety of cell specification events in the early sea urchin embryos by modulating the cell adhesion structures, actin dynamics, intracellular Ca2+ signalling, and the expression of key transcription factors.

HpSulf, a heparan sulfate 6-O-endosulfatase, is involved in the regulation of VEGF signaling during sea urchin development.

Cell surface heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) play significant roles in the regulation of developmental signaling, including vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), fibroblast growth factor, Wnt and bone morphogenetic protein signaling, through modification of their sulfation patterns. Recent studies have revealed that one of the functions of heparan sulfate 6-O-endosulfatase (Sulf) is to remove the sulfate from the 6-O position of HSPGs at the cell surface, thereby regulating the binding activities of heparan sulfate (HS) chains to numerous ligands and receptors in animal species. In this study, we focused on the sea urchin Hemicentrotus pulcherrimus homolog of Sulf (HpSulf), and analyzed its expression pattern and functions during development. HpSulf protein was present throughout development and localized at cell surface of all blastomeres. In addition, the HS-specific epitope 10E4 was detected at the cell surface and partially colocalized with HpSulf. Knockdown of HpSulf using morpholino antisense oligonucleotides (MO) caused abnormal morphogenesis, and the development of MO-injected embryos was arrested before the hatched blastula stage, indicating that HpSulf is necessary for the early developmental process of sea urchin embryos. Furthermore, we found that injection of HpSulf mRNA suppressed the abnormal skeleton induced by overexpression of HpVEGF mRNA, whereas injection of an inactive form of HpSulf mRNA, containing mutated cysteines in the sulfatase domain, did not have this effect. Taken together, these results suggest that HpSulf is involved in the regulation of various signal transductions, including VEGF signaling, during sea urchin development.