Salivary and serum haptoglobin, adenosine deaminase, and immunoglobulin G in growing pigs.

BACKGROUND: Identification of animals in need of medical treatment is important in porcine health management, where analytical samples applicable at farm level could be utilized. Several biomarkers are measurable in saliva, which is less stressful to collect than blood. Saliva sampling is easy to learn and repeatable, making it suitable for monitoring purposes. Previous research suggests that porcine health biomarkers are dependent on production stage and gender, and that combining biomarkers improves diagnostic sensitivity. However, proper monitoring of biomarkers during the complete production cycle has not been studied. We aimed to describe the dynamics of salivary and serum haptoglobin (Hp), adenosine deaminase (ADA), and immunoglobulin G (IgG) in four production stages (suckling, early growing, late growing, finishing), on commercial Finnish pig farms using a total of 117 piglets. The relationship between gender and biomarker dynamics was investigated, as well as the relationships between these biomarkers in saliva and serum. RESULTS: The highest salivary concentrations of Hp, ADA and IgG were measured in suckling piglets. The differences between production stages were generally larger in saliva than for the corresponding serum biomarkers. All correlation coefficients between salivary biomarkers were positive in each production stage and the strength of the correlation varied from 0.245 to 0.762. No similar trend was observed regarding correlation coefficients either between serum biomarkers or between salivary and serum biomarkers. Gender was associated with some biomarker concentrations. CONCLUSIONS: The biomarker dynamics supported previous findings that collection of analytical samples should be conducted in age-matched populations. Positive and even strong relationships between salivary biomarkers indicate the potential to use especially saliva for health monitoring. Our results also suggest the importance of considering gender effects when assessing some salivary or serum biomarkers.

Fecal microbiota profiles of growing pigs and their relation to growth performance.

The early gut microbiota composition is fundamentally important for piglet health, affecting long-term microbiome development and immunity. In this study, the gut microbiota of postparturient dams was compared with that of their offspring in three Finnish pig farms at three growth phases. The differences in fecal microbiota of three study development groups (Good, Poorly, and PrematureDeath) were analyzed at birth (initial exposure phase), weaning (transitional phase), and before slaughter (stable phase). Dam Lactobacillaceae abundance was lower than in piglets at birth. Limosilactobacillus reuteri and Lactobacillus amylovorus were dominantly expressed in dams and their offspring. Altogether 17 piglets (68%) were identified with Lactobacillaceae at the initial exposure phase, divided unevenly among the development groups: 85% of Good, 37.5% of Poorly, and 75% of PrematureDeath pigs. The development group Good was identified with the highest microbial diversity, whereas the development group PrematureDeath had the lowest diversity. After weaning, the abundance and versatility of Lactobacillaceae in piglets diminished, shifting towards the microbiome of the dam. In conclusion, the fecal microbiota of pigs tends to develop towards a similar alpha and beta diversity despite development group and rearing environment.

Fewer culturable Lactobacillaceae species identified in faecal samples of pigs performing manipulative behaviour.

Manipulative behaviour that consists of touching or close contact with ears or tails of pen mates is common in pigs and can become damaging. Manipulative behaviour was analysed from video recordings of 45-day-old pigs, and 15 manipulator-control pairs (n = 30) were formed. Controls neither received nor performed manipulative behaviour. Rectal faecal samples of manipulators and controls were compared. 16S PCR was used to identify Lactobacillaceae species and 16S amplicon sequencing to determine faecal microbiota composition. Seven culturable Lactobacillaceae species were identified in control pigs and four in manipulator pigs. Manipulators (p = 0.02) and females (p = 0.005) expressed higher Lactobacillus amylovorus, and a significant interaction was seen (sex * status: p = 0.005) with this sex difference being more marked in controls. Females (p = 0.08) and manipulator pigs (p = 0.07) tended to express higher total Lactobacillaceae. A tendency for an interaction was seen in Limosilactobacillus reuteri (sex * status: p = 0.09). Results suggest a link between observed low diversity in Lactobacillaceae and the development of manipulative behaviour.

Euthanasia and the rehabilitation of wildlife casualties in Finland: decision-making varies depending on the background education of the caregivers.

Caring for wildlife casualties is a common aspect of animal-protection work. The range of care options of wildlife in Finland vary from professional zoos to voluntary members of the public. There are complex ethical concerns to be considered in deciding whether an injured animal should be treated or euthanized. Differing opinions and poor communication may lead to unnecessary conflicts among caregivers. We investigated opinions behind the decision-making of caregivers related to wildlife casualties using a web-based questionnaire. We asked the respondents to rate their level of agreement with 27 statements on a seven-point Likert scale. Seventy-eight respondents were included in our analysis. Animal-related education was classified as veterinarian (n = 14), other (n = 18), and none (n = 49). The median (IQR) levels of age and work experience were 43 (17) and 5 (9) years, respectively, regardless of educational level. The groups were tested for differences level of agreement with the statements in Kruskall-Wallis tests (with Bonferroni-corrected pair-wise tests). Overall, the strongest disagreement was with statements proposing euthanasia on the grounds that the species was common [1 (2)], the treatment would be costly [1 (4)] or long-term [1 (4)], or there was no end-of-life-solution immediately available [1 (2)]. The highest agreement was with the statement advocating not euthanizing the animal if it could easily be returned to its natural habitat [7 (0)]. The respondents differed in their perceptions depending on their animal-related education. The cost and length of treatment, the prevalence of the species, and a known end-of-life solution influenced the euthanasia-related decisions of veterinarians more than of respondents in the other educational groups. Those with no animal-related education expressed the least willingness to euthanize an injured wild animal, even if it would be partly dependent on humans for the rest of its life or even if the treatment would be very stressful. We concluded that attitudes and practices related to euthanasia differ depending on the respondents' education, and that more discussion is needed on the ethical aspects behind the decision-making. This would help to increase mutual understanding among caregivers and facilitate the development of uniform standards that would potentially benefit animal welfare.

Odor exploration behavior of the domestic pig (Sus scrofa) as indicator of enriching properties of odors.

Introduction and aim: Although the sense of smell in pigs is widely recognized as being highly developed, surprisingly little is known about their sensory ability. This study aimed to (a) identify which non-social odors pigs were able to detect and distinguish between, (b) investigate the types of behavior expressed when exploring odors and, (c) compare pigs' responses to the different odors to evaluate their interest in the odors. Methods: Growing pigs (N = 192) of crossbred commercial breeds were enrolled in the experiment (32-110 days of age, weighing 64.9 ± 10.1kg). Littermate pairs of opposite sex were tested in test pens with two odor insertion points in the pen wall, 55 cm apart. All pigs were habituated to the test pens and experimenters. Twelve odors were tested (eight essential oils and four synthetic perfumes) in groups of three odors, with each pig pair tested once with one set of three odors (all possible orders of the three odors were tested on 24 pairs in total), always against a non-odor control (demineralized water). In a test, each of the three odors were presented during three trials in a row (a total of 9 trials per test; trial duration: 1 min; inter-trial breaks: 2 min; total test duration: 25 min). Response variables included: duration of sniffing, feeding-related behavior (licking, biting and rooting), agonistic behavior (biting, displacement and pushing) and no approach of the odor or control, recorded throughout each 1-min odor presentation. Results: All pigs sniffed an odor less when repeatedly presented (LMM: all odors P < 0.05), and significantly longer at the subsequent presentation of a new odor [LMM (3rd vs. 1st presentations): P < 0.001]. Specific odor and odor type (essential oil vs. synthetic perfume) had no significant effect on sniffing duration. Overall, feeding-related behavior and agonistic behavior were expressed significantly more when pigs explored the odor compared with the control insertion point (Paired t-tests: P < 0.001), and specific odor only affected the expression of feeding-related behavior. Conclusion: Collectively, pigs express sniffing, agonistic, and feeding-related behavior when exploring odors, which suggests that pigs perceive odors of non-social origin as a resource. Odors may thus constitute relevant enrichment material for pigs.

Breed differences in social cognition, inhibitory control, and spatial problem-solving ability in the domestic dog (Canis familiaris).

The extraordinary genetic and behavioural diversity of dog breeds provides a unique opportunity for investigating the heritability of cognitive traits, such as problem-solving ability, social cognition, inhibitory control, and memory. Previous studies have mainly investigated cognitive differences between breed groups, and information on individual dog breeds is scarce. As a result, findings are often contradictory and inconsistent. The aim of this study was to provide more clarity on between-breed differences of cognitive traits in dogs. We examined the performance of 13 dog breeds (N = 1002 dogs) in a standardized test battery. Significant breed differences were found for understanding of human communicative gestures, following a human's misleading gesture, spatial problem-solving ability in a V-detour task, inhibitory control in a cylinder test, and persistence and human-directed behaviour during an unsolvable task. Breeds also differed significantly in their behaviour towards an unfamiliar person, activity level, and exploration of a novel environment. No significant differences were identified in tasks measuring memory or logical reasoning. Breed differences thus emerged mainly in tasks measuring social cognition, problem-solving, and inhibitory control. Our results suggest that these traits may have come under diversifying artificial selection in different breeds. These results provide a deeper understanding on breed-specific traits in dogs.

Novel saliva biomarkers for stress and infection in pigs: Changes in oxytocin and procalcitonin in pigs with tail-biting lesions.

There is a need for feasible and reliable measures to improve and evaluate production animal health and welfare. Oxytocin is a promising novel stress-related biomarker and procalcitonin may be a measure of sepsis. Both have potential for use in pigs and can be measured from saliva, which allows on-farm sampling with minimal impact on the animals. The current study sought to further validate these measures using a spontaneous situation that causes both stress and an increased risk for infections in pigs, namely a tail-biting outbreak. Grower pigs on a commercial farm belonging to three different phenotype groups were selected: control pigs from control pens (CC, N = 30), control pigs (CTB, N = 10), and pigs with tail lesions from pens with a tail-biting outbreak (LTB, N = 27). A single sample of saliva was collected from each pig and analysed for a range of biomarkers related to stress, infection, inflammation, and immune activation. Oxytocin tended to be higher in CC pigs than in LTB pigs, while cortisol was higher in CTB than CC pigs. Procalcitonin tended to be higher, and haptoglobin was higher in LTB than in CC pigs. Adenosine-deaminase levels were similar between phenotypes. These results provide further evidence for the link between stress and tail biting, and indicate that tail-biting lesions are potential routes for systemic spread of bacteria. Further research into saliva oxytocin as a stress biomarker and saliva procalcitonin as a sepsis biomarker in pigs is warranted.

Oral Dimensions Related to Bit Size in Adult Horses and Ponies.

A bit that fits is essential for horse welfare and good communication with the ridden, driven or led horses. The bit causes pressure on the sensitive structures of the horse mouth. The aim of this study was to investigate variation in oral dimensions related to bit fit in adult horses and ponies and to evaluate bit fit by comparing oral dimensions with the currently used bit size selected by the horse owner. The study population consisted of 554 horses and ponies, 308 geldings and 246 mares, age 5-29 years, presented for routine dental care. Oral dimensions: mouth width, distance between upper and lower jaw, tongue thickness and lower jaw width, were measured under sedation. Oral dimensions were compared with the most used bit mouthpiece size presented to the researcher by the owner. Bit type and material were recorded. All oral dimensions in adult horses and ponies varied by breed and sex. Mouth width and distance between upper and lower jaw correlated positively with age. Oral dimensions were significantly smaller in mares than in geldings. In coldblood Finnhorses, oral dimensions were greater than in other breeds; in ponies they were smaller. The majority of the oral dimensions correlated positively with each other. Lower jaw width did not correlate with tongue thickness. It was common to use a bit that did not fit the horse: the bit was either too short or too long (over 10 mm longer) compared to mouth width, compressed the tongue in between the upper and lower jaw, or the center link was of similar length compared to lower jaw width, thus possibly causing pressure points or a nutcracker effect on the bars of the lower jaw. Horses had, on average, space for a 14 mm thick bit without compressing the tongue. The results of this study can aid in choosing a horse bit size that fits correctly and does not cause discomfort. It is recommended that the fit of the bit is evaluated regularly as the horse ages.

Development of flank lesions in growing pigs after weaning: A case study.

Flank lesions in pigs are a common yet poorly understood consequence of damaging social behavior. One group of pigs on a commercial farm with group lactation and late weaning, and with the history of flank lesions was studied. Skin lesions on the flanks, including linear and circular lesions, and tail lesions on 69 pigs were recorded six times during 5 weeks after weaning at the age of 9 weeks. Nosing behavior was scanned during six sessions with multiple scans. The associations of age, trunk whiteness, weight gain, sow parity, litter size, sex, and tail lesions with the number of circular and linear lesions were analyzed using linear mixed models. The number of linear lesions increased as pigs aged, and pigs with a higher weight gain had more linear lesions. Moreover, pigs with a whiter trunk color were scored with more lesions of both types. According to descriptive behavior data, nosing and biting behaviors were most frequent during weeks 2-4 after weaning at the age of 11-13 weeks. On average, seven circular flank lesions were found per pig during the experiment, at the age of 10-14 weeks. After the peak on day 17, their occurrence decreased. Skin lesion occurrence was related to a lighter skin color on the trunks of pigs. We recommend reporting skin color in connection with lesion scoring results. Nosing behavior and flank lesions both peaked from 2 to 4 weeks after weaning, suggesting that nosing behavior contributed to lesion development during this time.

Dynamics of Salivary Adenosine Deaminase, Haptoglobin, and Cortisol in Lipopolysaccharide-Challenged Growing Pigs.

Infectious and inflammatory conditions are common especially in growing pigs. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is an important antigenic structure of Gram-negative bacteria and can be used to induce inflammation experimentally. As pigs are usually group-housed in commercial conditions, it is difficult to detect sick individuals, particularly at an early stage of illness. Acute phase proteins such as haptoglobin (Hp) are known indicators of an activated innate immune system whereas adenosine deaminase (ADA) is a relatively novel inflammatory biomarker in pigs. Both parameters can be measured in saliva and could be used as indicators of inflammation. Compared with blood sampling, saliva sampling is a less stressful procedure that is rapid, non-invasive and easy to perform both at group and at individual level. In this blinded randomized clinical trial, 32 female pigs at their post-weaning phase were allocated to one of four treatments comprising two injections of the following substance combinations: saline-saline (SS), ketoprofen-saline (KS), saline-LPS (SL), and ketoprofen-LPS (KL). First, ketoprofen or saline was administered intramuscularly on average 1 h before either LPS or saline was given through an ear vein catheter. In all groups, saliva was collected prior to injections (baseline) and at 4, 24, 48, and 72 h post-injection for determination of ADA, Hp, and cortisol concentrations. A multivariate model was applied to describe the dynamics of each biomarker. Pairwise relationships between ADA, Hp, and cortisol responses from baseline to 4 h post-injection within the SL group were studied with Spearman correlations. A significant increase in the SL group was seen in all biomarkers 4 h post-injection compared to baseline and other time points (pairwise comparisons, p < 0.01 for all) and ketoprofen alleviated the LPS effect. We found a significant positive correlation between ADA and Hp within the SL group (r = 0.86, p < 0.05). The primary and novel findings of the present study are the response of ADA to LPS, its time course and alleviation by ketoprofen. Our results support the evidence that ADA and Hp can be used as inflammatory biomarkers in pigs. We suggest further studies to be conducted in commercial settings with larger sample sizes.

Animal Welfare Control-Inspection Findings and the Threshold for Requesting a Police Investigation.

An increasing proportion of animal welfare violations in Finland are related to companion animals. However, only a small number of these issues are investigated or prosecuted. The aims of this study were (i) to describe the inspection findings and the resulting actions of the official municipal veterinarians in the Finnish Capital Region and (ii) to identify the factors that predict their submissions of investigation requests to the police. Our data consisted of animal welfare complaints and official veterinarians' inspection reports and decisions from 811 cases of animal welfare control in the Finnish Capital Region. The data covered the period from March 2019 to April 2020. We performed logistic regression analyses to identify the factors that best predict when official veterinarians detect non-compliances and report the cases for police investigation. In 86% (696/811) of the cases, the veterinarians performed at least one animal welfare inspection, and/or received information from the police, or otherwise investigated the complaint. The most common forms of non-compliance were lack of basic maintenance and care (42%, 295/696) and insufficient veterinary care (27%, 185/696). The veterinarians requested for a police investigation in 9.6% (44/460) of all cases with detected non-compliances. The best predictors for detecting non-compliances with the animal welfare legislation were complaints of insufficient veterinary care (OR 1.9, CI 1.1-3.4), the cases assessed by the information from the police and/or an animal shelter (OR 15.2, CI 7.9-29.2), at least one inspection in an animal's premises with prior warning (OR 11.2, CI 5.5-22.6), and without prior warning (OR 17.0, CI 9.7-29.5). Complaints of violence against animals were negatively associated with detecting non-compliances (OR 0.5, CI 0.3-0.9). However, the detection of violence against animals predicted requests for police investigations (OR 9.3, CI 3.1-27.9), as did the execution of permanent urgent measures by official veterinarians (OR 4.9, CI 1.9-12.9). To improve the animal welfare control system and the investigation of crimes against animals, cooperation between officials should be developed. Further studies are needed to improve the understanding of the prevalence of violence against animals, and to advance methods used by animal welfare control to identify cases of violence.

Cost-Effectiveness Analysis of Seven Measures to Reduce Tail Biting Lesions in Fattening Pigs.

Tail biting is an important animal welfare issue in the pig sector. Studies have identified various risk factors which can lead to biting incidents and proposed mitigation measures. This study focused on the following seven key measures which have been identified to affect the risk of tail biting lesions: improvements in straw provision, housing ventilation, genetics, stocking density, herd health, provision of point-source enrichment objects, and adoption of early warning systems. The aim of this study was to examine whether these selected measures to reduce the risk of tail biting lesions in pig fattening are cost-effective. The problem was analyzed by first summarizing the most prospective interventions, their costs and expected impacts on the prevalence of tail biting lesions, second, by using a stochastic bio-economic model to simulate the financial return per pig space unit and per pig at different levels of prevalence of tail biting lesions, and third by looking at how large a reduction in tail biting lesions would be needed at different levels of initial prevalence of lesions to cover the costs of interventions. Tail biting lesions of a severity which would require an action (medication, hospitalization of the pig or other care, or taking preventive measures) by the pig producer were considered in the model. The results provide guidance on the expected benefits and costs of the studied interventions. According to the results, if the average prevalence of tail biting lesions is at a level of 10%, the costs of this damaging behavior can be as high as €2.3 per slaughtered pig (~1.6% of carcass value). Measures which were considered the least expensive to apply, such as provision of point-source enrichment objects, or provided wider production benefits, such as improvements in ventilation and herd health, became profitable at a lower level of efficacy than measures which were considered the most expensive to apply (e.g., straw provision, increased space allowance, automated early warning systems). Measures which were considered most efficient in reducing the risk of tail biting lesions, such as straw provision, can be cost-effective in preventing tail biting, especially when the risk of tail biting is high. At lower risk levels, the provision of point-source objects and other less costly but relatively effective measures can play an important role. However, selection of measures appropriate to the individual farm problem is essential. For instance, if poor health or barren pens are causing the elevated risk of tail biting lesions, then improving health management or enriching the pens may resolve the tail biting problem cost-effectively.

Evaluation of Tail Lesions of Finishing Pigs at the Slaughterhouse: Associations With Herd-Level Observations.

The prevalence of tail lesions evaluated at the slaughterhouse varies considerably between herds. These lesions result mainly from tail biting, a harmful behavior with multifactorial origin. This study sought to investigate if a batchwise inspection of tails at slaughterhouse could be a useful method to estimate the animal welfare situation in finishing pig herds, and if so, what type and detail of tail scoring such an inspection should utilize. We investigated the distribution of different types of tail lesions and how well their scoring at slaughterhouse was associated with the situation recorded on-farm by a veterinarian as part of routine herd health visits. We also wanted to determine if animal welfare-related herd-level parameters, recorded by herd veterinarians during herd health visits, are associated with tail scoring at the slaughterhouse. A total of 10,517 pigtails from 84 herds were scored for this study. Herd data were collected from the national health classification register for pig farms in Finland and also included annual herd production quality data collected by the slaughterhouse. The scores of the tails varied considerably between the herds. On average, 48.1% (sd = 19.3) of the tails with an average length of 30.4 cm (sd = 2.7) were fully intact, 37.3% (13.9) had healed (length = 26.4, sd = 5.1 cm), 12.4% (9.0) (length = 28.9, sd = 4.3 cm) had minor acute wounds, and 2.3% (2.1) (length = 24.2, sd = 6.0 cm) had major acute wounds. Proportions of different tail lesions at slaughterhouse were associated with or tended to be associated with the following herd-level parameters in regression models: use of wood as enrichment (p < 0.1), one health parameter (leg problems other than arthritis, p < 0.05), and long-term animal welfare estimate (annual mortality, p < 0.05). Detailed tail evaluation at the slaughterhouse shows potential in estimating the tail lesions and long-term welfare level on the farm. By recording only one type of tail condition (such as tails with major acute lesions) at the slaughterhouse, it is not possible to estimate the total tail lesion situation in the herds before slaughter. A more detailed scoring similar to the one used in this trial is recommended.

Bit-Related Lesions in Event Horses After a Cross-Country Test.

Bit-related oral lesions are common and may impair horse welfare. The aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence of oral lesions and their risk factors in a sample of Finnish event horses. The rostral part of the oral cavity (the bit area) of 208 event horses (127 warmbloods, 52 coldbloods, and 29 ponies) was examined in a voluntary inspection after the last competition phase, i.e., the cross-country test. Acute lesions were observed in 52% (109/208) of the horses. The lesion status was graded as no acute lesions for 48% (99/208), mild for 22% (45/208), moderate for 26% (55/208) and severe for 4% (9/208) of the horses. The inner lip commissure was the most common lesion location observed in 39% (81/208) of the horses. A multivariable logistic regression model with data of 174 horses was applied to risk factor analysis. Horses wearing thin (10-13 mm) (OR 3.5, CI 1.4-8.7) or thick (18-22 mm) (OR 3.4, CI 1.4-8.0) bits had a higher risk of moderate/severe lesion status than horses wearing middle-sized (14-17 mm) bits (P = 0.003). Breed was associated with moderate/severe lesion status (P = 0.02). The risk was higher for warmbloods (reference group) and coldbloods (OR 2.0, CI 0.88-4.7) compared with ponies (OR 0.2, CI 0.04-0.87). Mares were at higher risk of moderate/severe lesion status (OR 2.2, CI 1.1-4.5) than geldings (reference group) (P = 0.03). Bar lesions were more common in horses with unjointed bits (40%, 8/20) than with basic double-jointed (10%, 5/52), formed double-jointed (8%, 6/78) or single-jointed bits (5%, 2/40) (Fisher's exact test, P = 0.002). The results of this study suggest that thin and thick bits and mare sex should be considered risk factors for mouth lesions. In addition, in this sample ponies had smaller risk for lesions than other horse breeds. We encourage adopting bit area monitoring as a new routine by horse handlers and as a welfare measure by competition organizers for randomly drawn horses.

Effects of Bedding Material on Equine Lower Airway Inflammation: A Crossover Study Comparing Peat and Wood Shavings.

Bedding materials affect stable air hygiene, and thus the development and exacerbation of equine asthma. There is limited knowledge concerning the effects of different types of bedding material on equine lower airway inflammation. The objective of our study was to investigate the effects of bedding materials on respiratory signs, tracheal mucus score, and lower airway cytology in healthy adult horses. The study design was a prospective controlled study, and the subjects were healthy adult riding school horses (n = 32) from a single stable. Wood shavings were compared to peat, which was used as a reference bedding material. Lower airway endoscopy and sampling (tracheal wash and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid) for cytological examination were performed after each 35-day bedding period. No difference between bedding periods was observed in the respiratory rate or tracheal mucus score. Tracheal wash neutrophil percentage with the wood shavings was higher compared to the previous (P = 0.040) or following (P = 0.0045) peat period. Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid neutrophil percentage with the wood shavings was higher compared to the following peat period (P < 0.001). We conclude that, between the two bedding materials used in this study, peat caused less neutrophilic lower airway inflammation in horses. The information gained from this study may assist veterinarians and horse owners in selecting bedding materials, especially for horses suffering from equine asthma.

Herd-Level and Individual Differences in Fecal Lactobacilli Dynamics of Growing Pigs.

We studied the fecal lactobacilli count and species diversity of growing pigs along with immune parameters associated with intestinal lactobacilli. Thirty pigs categorized as small (S, n = 12) or large (L, n = 18) at birth were followed from birth to slaughter in two commercial herds, H1 and H2. Herds differed in terms of their general management. We determined sow colostrum quality, colostrum intake, piglet serum immunoglobulins, and pig growth. We took individual fecal samples from pigs in the weaning and finishing units. We studied lactobacilli count and identified their diversity with 16S PCR. Total lactobacilli count increased in H1 and decreased in H2 between samplings. Lactobacilli species diversity was higher in H1 in both fecal sampling points, whereas diversity decreased over time in both herds. We identified altogether seven lactobacilli species with a maximum of five (one to five) species in one herd. However, a relatively large proportion of lactobacilli remained unidentified with the used sequencing technique. Small pigs had higher lactobacilli counts in both herds but the difference was significant only in H2 (p = 0.01). Colostrum quality was numerically better in H1 than in H2, where colostrum intake tended to be associated with total lactobacilli count (p = 0.05).

The Evidence for a Causal Link Between Disease and Damaging Behavior in Pigs.

Damaging behaviors (DB) such as tail and ear biting are prevalent in pig production and reduce welfare and performance. Anecdotal reports suggest that health challenges increase the risk of tail-biting. The prevalence of tail damage and health problems show high correlations across batches within and between farms. There are many common risk factors for tail-biting and health problems, notably respiratory, enteric and locomotory diseases. These include suboptimal thermal climate, hygiene, stocking density and feed quality. The prevalence of tail damage and health problems also show high correlations across batches within and between farms. However, limited evidence supports two likely causal mechanisms for a direct link between DB and health problems. The first is that generalized poor health (e.g., enzootic pneumonia) on farm poses an increased risk of pigs performing DB. Recent studies indicate a possible causal link between an experimental inflammation and an increase in DB, and suggest a link between cytokines and tail-biting. The negative effects of poor health on the ingestion and processing of nutrients means that immune-stimulated pigs may develop specific nutrient deficiencies, increasing DB. The second causal mechanism involves tail-biting causing poor health. Indirectly, pathogens enter the body via the tail lesion and once infected, systemic spread of infection may occur. This occurs mainly via the venous route targeting the lungs, and to a lesser extent via cerebrospinal fluid and the lymphatic system. In carcasses with tail lesions, there is an increase in lung lesions, abscessation, arthritis and osteomyelitis. There is also evidence for the direct spread of pathogens between biters and victims. In summary, the literature supports the association between poor health and DB, particularly tail-biting. However, there is insufficient evidence to confirm causality in either direction. Nevertheless, the limited evidence is compelling enough to suggest that improvements to management and housing to enhance pig health will reduce DB. In the same way, improvements to housing and management designed to address DB, are likely to result in benefits to pig health. While most of the available literature relates to tail-biting, we suggest that similar mechanisms are responsible for links between health and other DB.

Risk factors for bit-related lesions in Finnish trotting horses.

BACKGROUND: Bit-related lesions in competition horses have been documented, but little evidence exists concerning their potential risk factors. OBJECTIVES: To explore potential risk factors for oral lesions in Finnish trotters. STUDY DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. METHODS: The rostral part of the mouth of 261 horses (151 Standardbreds, 78 Finnhorses and 32 ponies) was examined after a harness race. Information on bit type, equipment and race performance was collected. RESULTS: A multivariable logistic regression model of Standardbreds and Finnhorses showed a higher risk of moderate or severe oral lesion status associated with horses wearing a Crescendo bit (n = 38, OR 3.6, CI 1.4-8.9), a mullen mouth regulator bit (n = 25, OR 9.9, CI 2.2-45) or a straight plastic bit (n = 14, OR 13.7, CI 1.75-110) compared with horses wearing a snaffle trotting bit (n = 98, P = .002). Bar lesions (67 horses) were more common in horses wearing unjointed bits than in horses wearing jointed bits (Fisher's exact test P < .001). Lesions in the buccal area and the inner lip commissures were not associated with bit type. Using a tongue-tie or an overcheck, galloping, placement in the top three or money earned in the race were not associated with lesion risk. MAIN LIMITATIONS: The sample size for certain bit types was insufficient for statistical analysis. CONCLUSIONS: Moderate and severe oral lesion status was more common in horses wearing a Crescendo bit, a mullen mouth regulator bit or a straight plastic bit than in horses wearing a single-jointed snaffle trotting bit. However, lesions were observed regardless of bit type. Further studies on rein tension, the interaction between bit type and rein tension and prevention of mouth lesions in trotters are warranted.

A Proposed Role for Pro-Inflammatory Cytokines in Damaging Behavior in Pigs.

Sickness can change our mood for the worse, leaving us sad, lethargic, grumpy and less socially inclined. This mood change is part of a set of behavioral symptoms called sickness behavior and has features in common with core symptoms of depression. Therefore, the physiological changes induced by immune activation, for example following infection, are in the spotlight for explaining mechanisms behind mental health challenges such as depression. While humans may take a day off and isolate themselves until they feel better, farm animals housed in groups have only limited possibilities for social withdrawal. We suggest that immune activation could be a major factor influencing social interactions in pigs, with outbreaks of damaging behavior such as tail biting as a possible result. The hypothesis presented here is that the effects of several known risk factors for tail biting are mediated by pro-inflammatory cytokines, proteins produced by the immune system, and their effect on neurotransmitter systems. We describe the background for and implications of this hypothesis.

Intact Tails as a Welfare Indicator in Finishing Pigs? Scoring of Tail Lesions and Defining Intact Tails in Undocked Pigs at the Abattoir.

Tail biting lesions are a potential measure of on-farm animal welfare, as a large range of stressors increase the risk for tail biting outbreaks. Further, tail biting is a major challenge, as lesions due to tail biting decrease animal welfare and health, as well as production efficiency and carcass quality. The aim of this study was to suggest a tail scoring system for use at slaughterhouses processing undocked pigs, and to link tail lesion scores to meat inspection data. A further aim was to suggest a definition for an intact enough tail. To validate the suggested scoring system we assessed tails before and after scalding and compared results to pathological examinations. In total, 14,433 tails were scored, and 117 tails were collected for pathological examination. After scalding, 49.2% of all tails were scored as fully intact. Of tails with lesions 2.5% were scored as having major acute wounds (>2 cm), while 11.6% had minor acute wounds (<2 cm), and 36.7% healed lesions. Intact tails were on average 31.5 cm (SD 2.5 cm) long. Lesion scored at the slaughter-line agreed well with the pathological assessment. Tail lesions were associated with several meat inspection findings: tails with more severe lesions and of shorter length increased the risk for meat inspection findings to a higher degree. A detailed lesion scoring method helps to identify carcasses at risk for condemnations, as well as being a potential method for on-farm welfare estimation. We suggest that a system for scoring tail lesions in undocked pigs should utilize a combination of scoring of the lesion and measuring the tail length. As bite marks or bruises on an otherwise intact tail were not a concern for meat hygiene, we suggest the definition of an intact enough tail could allow the inclusion of tails with these mild changes. Meat inspection findings in carcasses with tails scored as healed, but with no fresh lesions, and with more than 75% of the average intact length remaining were rather similar to those of fully intact tails. Based on these findings we suggest that a tail of this length, and with no visible fresh lesions could also be considered intact enough.