Silanization Strategies for Tailoring Peptide Functionalization on Silicon Surfaces: Implications for Enhancing Stem Cell Adhesion.

Biomaterial surface engineering and the integration of cell-adhesive ligands are crucial in biological research and biotechnological applications. The interplay between cells and their microenvironment, influenced by chemical and physical cues, impacts cellular behavior. Surface modification of biomaterials profoundly affects cellular responses, especially at the cell-surface interface. This work focuses on enhancing cellular activities through material manipulation, emphasizing silanization for further functionalization with bioactive molecules such as RGD peptides to improve cell adhesion. The grafting of three distinct silanes onto silicon wafers using both spin coating and immersion methods was investigated. This study sheds light on the effects of different alkyl chain lengths and protecting groups on cellular behavior, providing valuable insights into optimizing silane-based self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) before peptide or protein grafting for the first time. Specifically, it challenges the common use of APTES molecules in this context. These findings advance our understanding of surface modification strategies, paving the way for tailoring biomaterial surfaces to modulate the cellular behavior for diverse biotechnological applications.

Nonlinear Optical Responses of Photoswitchable Donor-Acceptor Stenhouse Adducts.

This work combines hyper-Rayleigh scattering (HRS) experiments performed in the NIR range (1.30 and 1.60 µm) and quantum chemical calculations to provide a comprehensive description of the second harmonic generation (SHG) responses of donor-acceptor Stenhouse adducts (DASAs). Representative derivatives of the three generations of DASAs, which differ by the nature of their electron-donating and withdrawing moieties and also include clickable species, have been synthesized and their photoswitching behavior fully characterized. The HRS measurements allow us to establish relationships between the magnitude of the SHG response of open forms and the nature of the donor and acceptor groups. The largest SHG responses are obtained for derivatives incorporating either a barbituric acid or an indanedione acceptor unit, while N-methylaniline appears as the most efficient donor group. The calculations support well the experimental data and show that high hyperpolarizabilities are associated to low excitation energies and large extent of the photoinduced intramolecular charge transfer, which enhances the dipole moment variation between the ground and first dipole-allowed electronic excited state. In addition, a complete investigation of the photoswitching kinetics of DASAs in chloroform solution shows important differences, highlighting in particular the role of the donor group on the photoswitching efficiency.

Silane-Based SAMs Deposited by Spin Coating as a Versatile Alternative Process to Solution Immersion.

Functionalization of silica surfaces with silane-based self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) is widely used in material sciences to tune surface properties and introduce terminal functional groups enabling subsequent chemical surface reactions and immobilization of (bio)molecules. Here, we report on the synthesis of four organotrimethoxysilanes with various molecular structures and we compare their grafting by spin coating with the one performed by the conventional solution immersion method. Strikingly, this study clearly demonstrates that the spin coating technique is a versatile, fast, and more convenient alternative process to prepare robust, smooth, and homogeneous SAMs with similar properties and quality as those deposited via immersion. SAMs were characterized by PM-IRRAS, AFM, and wettability measurements. SAMs can undergo several chemical surface modifications, and the reactivity of amine-terminated SAM was confirmed by PM-IRRAS and fluorescence measurements.

Self-tuning interfacial architecture for Estradiol detection by surface plasmon resonance biosensor.

This study reports the operation principles for reusable SPR biosensors utilizing nanoscale-specific electrostatic levitation phenomena in their sensitive layer design. Functional macromolecular building blocks localized near the "charged" surface by a variety of weak electrostatic interactions create a flexible and structurally variable architecture. A proof-of-concept is demonstrated by an immunospecific detection of 17ß-Estradiol (E2) following the competitive inhibition format. The sensing interfacial architecture is based on the BSA-E2 conjugate within the BSA matrix immobilized on the "charged" (as a result of guanidine thiocyanate treatment) gold surface at pH 5.0. Kinetic analysis for different E2 concentrations shows that using parameter ß of the stretched exponential function ~(1-exp(-(t/τ)ß) as an analyte-specific response measure allows one to substantially decrease the low detection limit (down to 10-3ng/ml) and increase the dynamic range (10-3-103ng/ml) of the SPR biosensor. Finally, it's concluded that the created interfacial architecture is a typical complex system, where SPR response is formed by the stochastic interactions within the whole variety of processes in the system. The E2 addition destroys the uniformity of the reaction space (where an interaction of the antibody (Ab) and the analog of E2 in the self-tuneable matrix takes place) by the redistribution of the immunospecific complexes Ab(E2)x (x=0, 1, 2) dependent on E2 concentration. Binding dynamics changes are reflected in the values of ß which summarize in compact form all "hidden" information specific for the evolving distributed interfacial system.

Conditions to minimize soft single biomolecule deformation when imaging with atomic force microscopy.

A recurrent interrogation when imaging soft biomolecules using atomic force microscopy (AFM) is the putative deformation of molecules leading to a bias in recording true topographical surfaces. Deformation of biomolecules comes from three sources: sample instability, adsorption to the imaging substrate, and crushing under tip pressure. To disentangle these causes, we measured the maximum height of a well-known biomolecule, the tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), under eight different experimental conditions positing that the maximum height value is a specific indicator of sample deformations. Six basic AFM experimental factors were tested: imaging in air (AIR) versus in liquid (LIQ), imaging with flat minerals (MICA) versus flat organic surfaces (self-assembled monolayers, SAM), and imaging forces with oscillating tapping mode (TAP) versus PeakForce tapping (PFT). The results show that the most critical parameter in accurately measuring the height of TMV in air is the substrate. In a liquid environment, regardless of the substrate, the most critical parameter is the imaging mode. Most importantly, the expected TMV height values were obtained with both imaging with the PeakForce tapping mode either in liquid or in air at the condition of using self-assembled monolayers as substrate. This study unambiguously explains previous poor results of imaging biomolecules on mica in air and suggests alternative methodologies for depositing soft biomolecules on well organized self-assembled monolayers.

Magnetically recoverable catalysts based on mono- or bis-(NHC) complexes of palladium for the Suzuki-Miyaura reaction in aqueous media: two NHC-Pd linkages are better than one.

Pre-synthesized mono- and bis(NHC) palladium complexes have been grafted onto magnetic core/shell γ-Fe2O3/silica particles and tested as catalysts in model Suzuki-Miyaura coupling reactions. The bis(NHC) immobilized complex was found to be a robust catalyst that can operate under mild conditions in aqueous media, even for the activation of chloroarene, whereas the mono(NHC) counterpart rapidly deactivates. Moreover, it can be readily recovered by magnetic separation and reused many times, providing very high productivities, and with so low leaching of palladium that the crude products obtained contain ≤10 ppm Pd.

Epoxy-terminated self-assembled monolayers containing internal urea or amide groups.

We report the synthesis of new coupling agents with internal amide or urea groups possessing an epoxy-terminal group and trimethoxysilyl-anchoring group. The structural characterizations of the corresponding self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) were performed by polarization modulation infrared reflection adsorption spectroscopy (PM-IRRAS). The molecular assembly is mainly based on the intermolecular hydrogen-bonding between adjacent amide or urea groups in the monolayers. Because of the steric hindrance of amide or urea groups, the distance between the alkyl chains is too large to establish van der Waals interactions, inducing their disorder. The reactivity of the epoxy-terminal groups was successfully investigated through reaction with a fluorescent probe. We show that SAMs containing internal urea or amide groups exhibited a higher density of accessible epoxide groups than the corresponding long-chain (C22) glycidyl-terminated SAM.

Immobilization of cryptophane derivatives onto SiO2/Au and Au substrates.

The synthesis of a cryptophane molecule bearing five methoxy substituents and an alkanethiol chain, 4, as well as its subsequent grafting onto a gold surface, is reported. Immobilization of cryptophane derivatives onto silica (SiO2/Au) surfaces was also performed by reacting a cryptophane molecule bearing one or six acid functions, 5 or 6, respectively, with an amino-terminated self-assembled monolayer (SAM). Polarization modulation infrared reflection-absorption spectroscopy (PM-IRRAS) was used to characterize the two types of cryptophane monolayers. Surface coverage of cryptophane monolayers was estimated by comparing the PM-IRRAS intensity of cryptophane bands with that calculated from the optical constants of pentamethoxy-cryptophane for a compact monolayer. A very efficient grafting of 4 onto a gold surface was found, with a surface coverage close to 100%. On the other hand, the reaction of mono-acid, 5, or hexa-acid, 6, cryptophanes with amino-terminated SAM was less efficient, since the surface coverage did not exceed 15%. Finally, a good surface coverage (75%) was also obtained by using a cysteamine coupling agent to modify 5 before its grafting onto a gold surface.

Nanoscale structural features determined by AFM for single virus particles.

In this work, we propose "single-image analysis", as opposed to multi-image averaging, for extracting valuable information from AFM images of single bio-particles. This approach allows us to study molecular systems imaged by AFM under general circumstances without restrictions on their structural forms. As feature exhibition is a resolution correlation, we have performed AFM imaging on surfaces of tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) to demonstrate variations of structural patterns with probing resolution. Two AFM images were acquired with the same tip at different probing resolutions in terms of pixel width, i.e., 1.95 and 0.49 nm per pixel. For assessment, we have constructed an in silico topograph based on the three-dimensional crystal structure of TMV as a reference. The prominent artifacts observed in the AFM-determined shape of TMV were attributed to tip convolutions. The width of TMV rod was systematically overestimated by ~10 nm at both probing resolutions of AFM. Nevertheless, the effects of tip convolution were less severe in vertical orientation so that the estimated height of TMV by AFM imaging was in close agreement with the in silico X-ray topograph. Using dedicated image processing algorithms, we found that at low resolution (i.e., 1.95 nm per pixel), the extracted surface features of TMV can be interpreted as a partial or full helical repeat (three complete turns with ~7.0 nm in length), while individual protein subunits (~2.5 nm) were perceivable only at high resolution. The present study shows that the scales of revealed structural features in AFM images are subject to both probing resolution and processing algorithms for image analysis.

Resolving the chemical nature of nanodesigned silica surface obtained via a bottom-up approach.

The covalent grafting on silica surfaces of a functional dendritic organosilane coupling agent inserted, in a long alkyl chain monolayer, is described. In this paper, we show that depending on experimental parameters, particularly the solvent, it is possible to obtain a nanodesigned surface via a bottom-up approach. Thus, we succeed in the formation of both homogeneous dense monolayer and a heterogeneous dense monolayer, the latter being characterized by a nanosized volcano-type pattern (4-6 nm of height, 100 nm of width, and around 3 volcanos/µm(2)) randomly distributed over the surface. The dendritic attribute of the grafted silylated coupling agent affords enough anchoring sites to immobilize covalently functional gold nanoparticles (GNPs), coated with amino PEG polymer to resolve the chemical nature of the surfaces and especially the volcano type nanopattern structures of the heterogeneous monolayer. Thus, the versatile surface chemistry developed herein is particularly challenging as the nanodesign is straightforward achieved in a bottom-up approach without any specific lithography device.

Functionalized hydrogen-bonding self-assembled monolayers grafted onto SiO2 substrates.

A novel urea coupling agent possessing a vinyl-terminal group and trimethoxysilyl anchoring group was synthesized and grafted onto SiO(2)/Au substrates. This ureido coupling agent exhibits a good capacity to directly yield homogeneous SAMs with a surface smoothing. Polarization modulation infrared reflection-absorption spectroscopy (PM-IRRAS) was used to monitor these SAMs. Indeed, the different functional groups (alkyl chain, urea, and vinyl) of this coupling agent were clearly observed in the PM-IRRAS spectra. Chemical modifications of the terminal function for the covalent immobilization of biomolecules were monitored by PM-IRRAS for the first time. We have demonstrated the successful reactions of the conversion of the vinyl-terminated SAMs successively into SAM-COOH and SAM-NHS without any degradation of the monolayer. The reactivity of activated esters was successfully investigated in order to immobilize the protein A.

PM-IRRAS investigation of self-assembled monolayers grafted onto SiO2/Au substrates.

Polarization modulation infrared reflection absorption spectroscopy (PM-IRRAS) was used to characterize self-assembled monolayers (SAMs). Novel ester-terminated organosilicon coupling agents possessing a trialkoxysilyl headgroup and a urea group in the linear alkyl chains (4) were synthesized and grafted onto SiO(2)/Au substrates (SiO(2) film of 200 Å thickness deposited on gold mirror). This composite substrate allowed the anchoring of SAMs and preserved the high reflectivity for infrared radiation. PM-IRRAS spectra with very high signal-to-noise ratios have been obtained in the mid-infrared spectral range allowing monitoring of the grafted SAMs. Quantitative analysis of the measured signal is described to compare PM-IRRAS and conventional IRRAS spectra. This quantitative analysis has been validated since the band intensities in the corrected PM-IRRAS and conventional IRRAS spectra are identical. Orientation information on the different functional groups has been obtained comparing the corrected PM-IRRAS spectrum with the one calculated using isotropic optical constants of ester-terminated organosilicon coupling agents 4. The carbonyls of the urea groups are preferentially parallel to the substrate surface favoring intermolecular hydrogen bonding and consequently a close packing of the molecules attached to the surface. By contrast, the alkyl chains present gauche defects and are poorly oriented.

Route to smooth silica-based surfaces decorated with novel self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) containing glycidyl-terminated very long hydrocarbon chains.

Novel glycidyl-terminated organosilicon coupling agents possessing a trialkoxysilyl head group and a very long hydrocarbon chain (C22) were synthesized. Their ability to afford densely packed self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) grafted on silica-based surfaces was investigated. Transmission FT-IR spectra showed that the most regular films were obtained by using trichloracetic acid as the catalyst (10 M%). Atomic force microscopy (AFM) and optical ellipsometry were consistent with well ordered monolayers exhibiting a marked decrease of the surface roughness. Epifluorescence microscopy revealed that these SAMs possessed a better surface reactivity than monolayers obtained with the commercially available (3-glycidoxypropyl) trimethoxysilane (GPTS) upon grafting of a fluorescent probe (dansylcadaverin). Moreover, direct attachment of fluorescent antibodies (RAG-TRITC) through covalent binding led to higher mean fluorescence intensities, showing that these new SAMs possess high potential for the immobilization of biological molecules.

In situ X-ray measurements to probe a new solid-state polycondensation mechanism for the design of supramolecular organo-bridged silsesquioxanes.

A long-range ordered organic/inorganic material is synthesized from a bis-silane, (EtO)(3)Si-(CH(2))(3)-NHCONH-C(6)H(4)-NHCONH-(CH(2))(3)-Si(OEt)(3). This crosslinked sol-gel solid exhibits a supramolecular organization via intermolecular hydrogen bonding interactions between urea groups (-NHCONH-) and covalent siloxane bonding, triple bond Si-O-Si triple bond. Time-resolved in situ X-ray measurements (coupling small- and wide-angle X-ray scattering techniques) are performed to follow the different steps involved in the synthetic process. A new mechanism based on the crystallization of the hydrolyzed species followed by their polycondensation in solid state is proposed.

Immobilization of catalysts of biological interest on porous oxidized silicon surfaces.

The present paper deals with the immobilization of redox mediators and proteins onto protected porous silicon surfaces to obtain their direct electrochemical reactions and to retain their bioactivities. This paper shows that MP-11 and viologens are able to establish chemical bonds with 3-aminopropyltriethoxylsilane-modified porous silicon surface. The functionalization of the surfaces have been fully characterized by energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) to examine the immobilization of these mediators onto the solid surface. Amperometric and open circuit potential measurements have shown the direct electron transfer between glucose oxidase and the electrode in the presence of the viologen mediator covalently linked to the 3-aminopropyltriethoxylsilane (APTES)-modified porous silicon surfaces.

Insights into the self-directed structuring of hybrid organic-inorganic silicas through infrared studies.

Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy has been used to probe the organization of the organic fragments in lamellar bridged silsesquioxanes with organic substructures based on alkylene chains of various lengths and urea groups [O1.5Si(CH2)3NHCONH(CH2)nNHCONH(CH2)3SiO1.5] (n = 6, 8-12). The structure and intermolecular interactions (hydrophobic and H-bonding) of these well-defined self-structured hybrid silicas are discussed in relation to their powder X-ray diffraction patterns. The degree of structural order is determined by the length and parity of the alkylene spacer. A concomitant enhancement in the degree of condensation of the inorganic component and a decrease in the strength of the hydrophobic interactions between the organic components are demonstrated. The strength and directionality of the H-bonding are directly correlated to the crystalllinity of the organic-inorganic hybrid materials.

Lamellar bridged silsesquioxanes: self-assembly through a combination of hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions.

The synthesis of four bis(trialkoxysilylated) organic molecules capable of self-assembly--(EtO)3Si(CH2)3NHCONH-(CH2)n-NHCONH(CH2)3Si(OEt)3 (n = 9-12)--associating urea functional groups and alkylidene chains of variable length is described. These compounds behave as organogelators, forming supramolecular assemblies thanks to the intermolecular hydrogen bonding of urea groups. Whereas fluoride ion-catalysed hydrolysis in ethanol in the presence of a stoichiometric amount of water produced amorphous hybrids, acid-catalysed hydrolysis in an excess of water gave rise to the formation of crystalline lamellar hybrid materials through a self-organisation process. The structural features of these nanostructured organic/inorganic hybrids were analysed by several techniques: attenuated Fourier transformed infrared (ATR-FTIR), solid-state NMR spectroscopy (13C and 29Si), scanning and transmission electron microscopy (SEM and TEM) and powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD). The reaction conditions, the hydrophobic properties of the long alkylidene chains and the hydrogen-bonding properties of the urea groups are determining factors in the formation of these self-assembled nanostructured hybrid silicas.

Shape-controlled bridged silsesquioxanes: hollow tubes and spheres.

A new approach for the morphological control of bridged silsesquioxanes has been achieved by the hydrolysis of silylated organic molecules bearing urea groups. The urea groups are responsible for the auto-association of the molecules through intermolecular hydrogen-bonding interactions. The self-assembly leads to supramolecular architectures that have the ability to direct the organization of hybrid silicas under controlled hydrolysis. The hydrolysis of the chiral diureido derivatives of trans-(1,2)-diaminocyclohexane 1 under basic conditions has been examined. The solid-state NMR spectra ((29)Si and (13)C) showed the hybrid nature of these materials with wholly preserved S-C bond covalent bonds throughout the silicate network. Hybrid silicas with hollow tubular morphologies were obtained by the hydrolysis of the enantiomerically pure compounds, (R,R)-1 or (S,S)-1, whereas the corresponding racemic mixture, rac-1, led to a hybrid with ball-like structures. The tubular shape is likely to result from a combination of two phenomena: the auto-association abilities and a self-templating structuration of the hybrid materials by the organic crystalline precursor. Electronic microscopy techniques (SEM and TEM) gave evidence for the self-templating pathway. The formation of the ball-like structures occurs through a usual nucleation growth phenomenon owing to a higher solubility of the corresponding crystals in the same medium.