Anaesthetic depth and delirium after major surgery: a randomised clinical trial.

BACKGROUND: Postoperative delirium is a serious complication of surgery associated with prolonged hospitalisation, long-term cognitive decline, and mortality. This study aimed to determine whether targeting bispectral index (BIS) readings of 50 (light anaesthesia) was associated with a lower incidence of POD than targeting BIS readings of 35 (deep anaesthesia). METHODS: This multicentre randomised clinical trial of 655 at-risk patients undergoing major surgery from eight centres in three countries assessed delirium for 5 days postoperatively using the 3 min confusion assessment method (3D-CAM) or CAM-ICU, and cognitive screening using the Mini-Mental State Examination at baseline and discharge and the Abbreviated Mental Test score (AMTS) at 30 days and 1 yr. Patients were assigned to light or deep anaesthesia. The primary outcome was the presence of postoperative delirium on any of the first 5 postoperative days. Secondary outcomes included mortality at 1 yr, cognitive decline at discharge, cognitive impairment at 30 days and 1 yr, unplanned ICU admission, length of stay, and time in electroencephalographic burst suppression. RESULTS: The incidence of postoperative delirium in the BIS 50 group was 19% and in the BIS 35 group was 28% (odds ratio 0.58 [95% confidence interval: 0.38-0.88]; P=0.010). At 1 yr, those in the BIS 50 group demonstrated significantly better cognitive function than those in the BIS 35 group (9% with AMTS ≤6 vs 20%; P<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Among patients undergoing major surgery, targeting light anaesthesia reduced the risk of postoperative delirium and cognitive impairment at 1 yr. CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION: ACTRN12612000632897.

Intraoperative ketamine for prevention of postoperative delirium or pain after major surgery in older adults: an international, multicentre, double-blind, randomised clinical trial.

BACKGROUND: Delirium is a common and serious postoperative complication. Subanaesthetic ketamine is often administered intraoperatively for postoperative analgesia, and some evidence suggests that ketamine prevents delirium. The primary purpose of this trial was to assess the effectiveness of ketamine for prevention of postoperative delirium in older adults. METHODS: The Prevention of Delirium and Complications Associated with Surgical Treatments [PODCAST] study is a multicentre, international randomised trial that enrolled adults older than 60 years undergoing major cardiac and non-cardiac surgery under general anaesthesia. Using a computer-generated randomisation sequence we randomly assigned patients to one of three groups in blocks of 15 to receive placebo (normal saline), low-dose ketamine (0·5 mg/kg), or high dose ketamine (1·0 mg/kg) after induction of anaesthesia, before surgical incision. Participants, clinicians, and investigators were blinded to group assignment. Delirium was assessed twice daily in the first 3 postoperative days using the Confusion Assessment Method. We did analyses by intention-to-treat and assessed adverse events. This trial is registered with clinicaltrials.gov, number NCT01690988. FINDINGS: Between Feb 6, 2014, and June 26, 2016, 1360 patients were assessed, and 672 were randomly assigned, with 222 in the placebo group, 227 in the 0·5 mg/kg ketamine group, and 223 in the 1·0 mg/kg ketamine group. There was no difference in delirium incidence between patients in the combined ketamine groups and the placebo group (19·45% vs 19·82%, respectively; absolute difference 0·36%, 95% CI -6·07 to 7·38, p=0·92). There were more postoperative hallucinations (p=0·01) and nightmares (p=0·03) with increasing ketamine doses compared with placebo. Adverse events (cardiovascular, renal, infectious, gastrointestinal, and bleeding), whether viewed individually (p value for each >0·40) or collectively (36·9% in placebo, 39·6% in 0·5 mg/kg ketamine, and 40·8% in 1·0 mg/kg ketamine groups, p=0·69), did not differ significantly across groups. INTERPRETATION: A single subanaesthetic dose of ketamine did not decrease delirium in older adults after major surgery, and might cause harm by inducing negative experiences. FUNDING: National Institutes of Health and Cancer Center Support.

Propofol sedation in children: sleep trumps amnesia.

OBJECTIVE: Detailed assessments of the effects of propofol on memory in children are lacking. We assessed the feasibility of measuring memory during propofol infusion, as commonly performed in sedation for MRI scanning. In addition, we determined the onset of memory loss in relation to the onset of sedation measured by verbal responsiveness. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Children scheduled for sedation for MRI received a 10-min infusion of propofol (3 mg/kg) as they viewed and named 100 simple line drawings, one shown every five seconds, until they were no longer responsive (encoding). A control group receiving no sedation for MRI underwent similar tasks. Sedation was measured as any verbal response, regardless of correctness. After recovery from sedation, recognition memory was tested, with correct yes/no recognitions matched to sedation responses during encoding (subsequent memory paradigm). RESULTS: Of the 48 children who received propofol, 30 could complete all study tasks (6.2 ± 1.6 years, 16 males). Individual responses could be modeled in all 30 children. On average, there was a 50% probability of no verbal response 3.1 min after the start of infusion, with 50% memory loss at 2.7 min. Children receiving propofol recognized 65 ± 16% of the pictures seen, whereas the control group recognized 93 ± 5%. CONCLUSION: Measurement of memory and sedation is possible in verbal children receiving propofol by infusion in a clinical setting. Despite propofol being an amnestic agent, there was little or no amnestic effect of propofol while the child was verbally responsive. It is important for sedation providers to realize that propofol sedation does not always produce amnesia while the child is responsive. CLINICALTRIALS. GOV NUMBER: NCT02278003.

The Prevention of Delirium and Complications Associated with Surgical Treatments (PODCAST) study: protocol for an international multicentre randomised controlled trial.

INTRODUCTION: Postoperative delirium is one of the most common complications of major surgery, affecting 10-70% of surgical patients 60 years and older. Delirium is an acute change in cognition that manifests as poor attention and illogical thinking and is associated with longer intensive care unit (ICU) and hospital stay, long-lasting cognitive deterioration and increased mortality. Ketamine has been used as an anaesthetic drug for over 50 years and has an established safety record. Recent research suggests that, in addition to preventing acute postoperative pain, a subanaesthetic dose of intraoperative ketamine could decrease the incidence of postoperative delirium as well as other neurological and psychiatric outcomes. However, these proposed benefits of ketamine have not been tested in a large clinical trial. METHODS: The Prevention of Delirium and Complications Associated with Surgical Treatments (PODCAST) study is an international, multicentre, randomised controlled trial. 600 cardiac and major non-cardiac surgery patients will be randomised to receive ketamine (0.5 or 1 mg/kg) or placebo following anaesthetic induction and prior to surgical incision. For the primary outcome, blinded observers will assess delirium on the day of surgery (postoperative day 0) and twice daily from postoperative days 1-3 using the Confusion Assessment Method or the Confusion Assessment Method for the ICU. For the secondary outcomes, blinded observers will estimate pain using the Behavioral Pain Scale or the Behavioral Pain Scale for Non-Intubated Patients and patient self-report. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: The PODCAST trial has been approved by the ethics boards of five participating institutions; approval is ongoing at other sites. Recruitment began in February 2014 and will continue until the end of 2016. Dissemination plans include presentations at scientific conferences, scientific publications, stakeholder engagement and popular media. REGISTRATION DETAILS: The study is registered at clinicaltrials.gov, NCT01690988 (last updated March 2014). The PODCAST trial is being conducted under the auspices of the Neurological Outcomes Network for Surgery (NEURONS). TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: NCT01690988 (last updated December 2013).

Visual P2-N2 complex and arousal at the time of encoding predict the time domain characteristics of amnesia for multiple intravenous anesthetic drugs in humans.

BACKGROUND: Intravenous anesthetics have marked effects on memory function, even at subclinical concentrations. Fundamental questions remain in characterizing anesthetic amnesia and identifying affected system-level processes. The authors applied a mathematical model to evaluate time-domain components of anesthetic amnesia in human subjects. METHODS: Sixty-one volunteers were randomized to receive propofol (n = 12), thiopental (n = 13), midazolam (n = 12), dexmedetomidine (n = 12), or placebo (n = 12). With drug present, subjects encoded pictures into memory using a 375-item continuous recognition task, with subsequent recognition later probed with drug absent. Memory function was sampled at up to 163 time points and modeled over the time domain using a two-parameter, first-order negative power function. The parietal event-related P2-N2 complex was derived from electroencephalography, and arousal was repeatedly sampled. Each drug was evaluated at two concentrations. RESULTS: The negative power function consistently described the course of amnesia (mean R = 0.854), but there were marked differences between drugs in the modulation of individual components (P < 0.0001). Initial memory strength was a function of arousal (P = 0.005), whereas subsequent decay was related to the reaction time (P < 0.0001) and the P2-N2 complex (P = 0.007/0.002 for discrete components). CONCLUSIONS: In humans, the amnesia caused by multiple intravenous anesthetic drugs is characterized by arousal-related effects on initial trace strength, and a subsequent decay predicted by attenuation of the P2-N2 complex at encoding. The authors propose that the failure of normal memory consolidation follows drug-induced disruption of interregional synchrony critical for neuronal plasticity and discuss their findings in the framework of memory systems theory.

Propofol and midazolam inhibit conscious memory processes very soon after encoding: an event-related potential study of familiarity and recollection in volunteers.

BACKGROUND: Intravenous drugs active via gamma-aminobutyric acid receptors to produce memory impairment during conscious sedation. Memory function was assessed using event-related potentials (ERPs) while drug was present. METHODS: The continuous recognition task measured recognition of photographs from working (6 s) and long-term (27 s) memory while ERPs were recorded from Cz (familiarity recognition) and Pz electrodes (recollection recognition). Volunteer participants received sequential doses of one of placebo (n = 11), 0.45 and 0.9 microg/ml propofol (n = 10), 20 and 40 ng/ml midazolam (n = 12), 1.5 and 3 microg/ml thiopental (n = 11), or 0.25 and 0.4 ng/ml dexmedetomidine (n = 11). End-of-day yes/no recognition 225 min after the end of drug infusion tested memory retention of pictures encoded on the continuous recognition tasks. RESULTS: Active drugs increased reaction times and impaired memory on the continuous recognition task equally, except for a greater effect of midazolam (P < 0.04). Forgetting from continuous recognition tasks to end of day was similar for all drugs (P = 0.40), greater than placebo (P < 0.001). Propofol and midazolam decreased the area between first presentation (new) and recognized (old, 27 s later) ERP waveforms from long-term memory for familiarity (P = 0.03) and possibly for recollection processes (P = 0.12). Propofol shifted ERP amplitudes to smaller voltages (P < 0.002). Dexmedetomidine may have impaired familiarity more than recollection processes (P = 0.10). Thiopental had no effect on ERPs. CONCLUSION: Propofol and midazolam impaired recognition ERPs from long-term memory but not working memory. ERP measures of memory revealed different pathways to end-of-day memory loss as early as 27 s after encoding.

Low-dose propofol-induced amnesia is not due to a failure of encoding: left inferior prefrontal cortex is still active.

BACKGROUND: Propofol may produce amnesia by affecting encoding. The hypothesis that propofol weakens encoding was tested by measuring regional cerebral blood flow during verbal encoding. METHODS: Seventeen volunteer participants (12 men; aged 30.4 +/- 6.5 yr) had regional cerebral blood flow measured using H2O positron emission tomography during complex and simple encoding tasks (deep vs. shallow level of processing) to identify a region of interest in the left inferior prefrontal cortex (LIPFC). The effect of either propofol (n = 6, 0.9 microg/ml target concentration), placebo with a divided attention task (n = 5), or thiopental at sedative doses (n = 6, 3 microg/ml) on regional cerebral blood flow activation in the LIPFC was tested. The divided attention task was expected to decrease activation in the LIPFC. RESULTS: Propofol did not impair encoding performance or reaction times, but impaired recognition memory of deeply encoded words 4 h later (median recognition of 35% [interquartile range, 17-54%] of words presented during propofol vs. 65% [38-91%] before drug; P < 0.05). Statistical parametric mapping analysis identified a region of interest of 6.6 cm in the LIPFC (T = 7.44, P = 0.014). Regional cerebral blood flow response to deep encoding was present in this region of interest in each group before drug (T > 4.41, P < 0.04). During drug infusion, only the propofol group continued to have borderline significant activation in this region (T = 4.00, P = 0.063). CONCLUSIONS: If the amnesic effect of propofol were solely due to effects on encoding, activation in the LIPFC should be minimal. Because LIPFC activation was not totally eliminated by propofol, the amnesic action of propofol must be present in other brain regions and/or affect other memory processes.

Memory: a guide for anaesthetists.

Episodic memory is the most 'human' of all memory systems, is integrally related to the hippocampus, and not only permits memories of the past in rich detail, but also allows projection of thoughts into the future. However, episodic memory is very sensitive to anaesthetic drugs and cannot be formed during adequate general anaesthesia. Ablation of episodic memory during consciousness is due to forgetting of memories, rather than inhibition of memory formation. There is a fine balance between being conscious with recollection and conscious with no recollection. A more detailed understanding of episodic memory in relation to other memory systems, as well as the relationship of the hippocampus to episodic memory function is provided. A synthesis of diverse knowledge is undertaken to identify potential mechanisms of amnesic drug effect, which will, of course, require further research to delineate.

Propofol and thiopental do not interfere with regional cerebral blood flow response at sedative concentrations.

BACKGROUND: Anesthetics may affect the regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) response associated with increased brain activity in humans. rCBF was measured as auditory stimulus rate was increased during propofol and thiopental administration. METHODS: After informed consent, 10 right-handed male volunteer participants (aged 33.5 +/- 10.4 yr, weighing 74.5 +/- 8.4 kg) received thiopental (n = 4) or propofol (n = 6) intravenously at stepwise target concentrations of propofol 1.2 and 2.5-3, or thiopental 4 and 7-9 microg/ml, representing sedative and hypnotic drug concentrations. The latter made volunteers unresponsive to voice or mild stimulation. Quantitative positron emission tomographic brain images were obtained at 0, 20, and 40 auditory words per minute at each drug concentration. Using SPM99 analysis, 10-mm spherical regions of interest were identified by peak covariation of word rate with rCBF across all conditions and drug concentrations. Individual mean rCBF responses in these and primary auditory cortex (Heschl's gyri) were obtained. RESULTS: Significant increases in rCBF with auditory word rate occurred in temporal lobes bilaterally at baseline (significance, T = 4.95). There was no change in this response during sedation (T = 5.60). During unresponsiveness seven of 10 participants had a diminished response in the left temporal lobe (T = 3.18). Global CBF, corrected for changes in PCO2 (3% .mmHg PCO2), was reduced 15% by sedation and 27% during unresponsiveness. CONCLUSION: The presence of propofol or thiopental does not affect the rCBF response to increasing stimulus rate during consciousness. Thus, changes in rCBF activation patterns with sedative concentrations of these drugs represent effects on brain activity itself. The neuroanatomical targets of drug effect on memory and attention may be revealed by changes in rCBF patterns associated with these cognitive activities.

Propofol-induced alpha rhythm.

The electroencephalographic effects of two intravenous sedative/hypnotic drugs, propofol and thiopental, were studied at three stable blood concentrations in 52 normal healthy volunteers. The higher concentration resulted in unresponsiveness (lack of response to auditory/tactile stimuli) in all subjects. This report describes the strong frontal-central rhythms apparent in this state using a quantitative description of oscillatory systems underlying the rhythm. These rhythms occur when sedative drug concentrations are greater than those producing the well-described increase in broadband beta-power associated with many sedative drugs. Propofol induces rhythms in the alpha-range, while thiopental produces rhythms in the beta-range. Quasistationary for a period of about 1 h, these rhythms exceed the baseline alpha-rhythm in power. By their resonant nature, these propofol-induced rhythms are analogous to 'the classic alpha-rhythm', but quantitative characteristics of the underlying oscillatory systems are different. Baseline properties of the oscillatory system underlying the initial resting alpha-rhythm recover completely as drug concentration decays to negligible values.

Information loss over time defines the memory defect of propofol: a comparative response with thiopental and dexmedetomidine.

BACKGROUND: Sedative-hypnotic drugs impair memory, but details regarding the nature of this effect are unknown. The influences of propofol, thiopental, and dexmedetomidine on the performance of a task that isolates specific components of episodic memory function were measured. METHODS: Working (1 intervening item, 6 s) and long-term memory (10 intervening items, 33 s) were tested using auditory words in a continuous recognition task before and during drug administration. Eighty-three volunteer participants were randomly assigned to receive a constant target concentration of drug or placebo, producing sedative effects from imperceptible to unresponsiveness. Responsive participants were categorized as high or low performers, using a median split of long-term memory performance during drug administration. Recognition of words at the end of the study day was assessed. RESULTS: High performers had acquisition of material into long-term memory when drug was present at the same level as placebo. Retention of this material at 225 min was significantly less for propofol (39 +/- 23% loss of material) than for other drugs (17-23% loss; P < 0.01). Greater sedation in low performers was evident in multiple measures. Memory for words presented before drug was no different from that associated with placebo for all groups. CONCLUSIONS: Lack of retention of material acquired into long-term memory during propofol administration, associated with minimal sedation, seems to define drug-induced amnesia. Sedation seems to impair the acquisition or encoding of material into long-term memory. Therefore, the putative targets of drug-induced amnesia by propofol are processes associated with retention of material in long-term memory.

A neuroanatomical construct for the amnesic effects of propofol.

BACKGROUND: This study was designed to identify neuroanatomical locations of propofol's effects on episodic memory by producing minimal and maximal memory impairment during conscious sedation. Drug-related changes in regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) were located in comparison with rCBF increases during a simple word memory task. METHODS: Regional cerebral blood flow changes were assessed in 11 healthy volunteers using H215O positron emission tomography (PET) and statistical parametric mapping (SPM99) at 600 and 1,000 ng/ml propofol target concentrations. Study groups were based on final recognition scores of auditory words memorized during PET scanning. rCBF changes during propofol administration were compared with those during the word memory task at baseline. RESULTS: Nonoverlapping memory effects were evident: low (n = 4; propofol concentration 523 +/- 138 ng/ml; 44 +/- 13% decrement from baseline memory) and high (n = 7; 829 +/- 246 ng/ml; 87 +/- 6% decrement from baseline) groups differed in rCBF reductions primarily in right-sided prefrontal and parietal regions, close to areas activated in the baseline memory task, particularly R dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (Brodmann area 46; x, y, z = 51, 38, 22). The medial temporal lobe region exhibited relative rCBF increases. CONCLUSIONS: As amnesia becomes maximal, rCBF reductions induced by propofol occur in brain regions identified with working memory processes. In contrast, medial temporal lobe structures were resistant to the global CBF decrease associated with propofol sedation. The authors postulate that the episodic memory effect of propofol is produced by interference with distributed cortical processes necessary for normal memory function rather than specific effects on medial temporal lobe structures.

Midazolam decreases cerebral blood flow in the left prefrontal cortex in a dose-dependent fashion.

Midazolam, a short-lived benzodiazepine producing sedation and reversible anterograde amnesia, was administered intravenously to 14 healthy male volunteers. Regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) was measured using positron emission tomography (PET) with intravenous H2 15O at either a 'high' midazolam EEG effect (EEG signs of stage 2 sleep), or 'low' midazolam EEG effect (increase in EEG beta power only). Memory tests administered following PET scans showed significant drug-induced impairment in learning and retrieval at the same drug concentration at which PET images were acquired. Statistical parametric mapping was used to identify regions where rCBF changes after drug administration were significantly different in the high- vs. low- effect groups. Dosexcondition interactions were found in the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex [Brodmann's areas (BA) 9 and 46], bilateral orbital-frontal cortex (BA 47), the left middle temporal gyrus (BA 22) and the right hippocampus. The predominantly left frontal rCBF decreases occur in a region associated with semantic processing, working memory, and encoding of verbal material, a process preferentially affected by midazolam. Our interpretation is that rCBF changes in the hippocampus are unlikely to mediate the anterograde amnesia produced by midazolam. Although in the present study PET images were acquired during the resting state rather than during memory processing, these results underscore the need for further investigation relating to the interaction of midazolam with specific cognitive operations in these brain regions.