Aging of the eye: Lessons from cataracts and age-related macular degeneration.

Aging is the greatest risk factor for chronic human diseases, including many eye diseases. Geroscience aims to understand the effects of the aging process on these diseases, including the genetic, molecular, and cellular mechanisms that underlie the increased risk of disease over the lifetime. Understanding of the aging eye increases general knowledge of the cellular physiology impacted by aging processes at various biological extremes. Two major diseases, age-related cataract and age-related macular degeneration (AMD) are caused by dysfunction of the lens and retina, respectively. Lens transparency and light refraction are mediated by lens fiber cells lacking nuclei and other organelles, which provides a unique opportunity to study a single aging hallmark, i.e., loss of proteostasis, within an environment of limited metabolism. In AMD, local dysfunction of the photoreceptors/retinal pigmented epithelium/Bruch's membrane/choriocapillaris complex in the macula leads to the loss of photoreceptors and eventually loss of central vision, and is driven by nearly all the hallmarks of aging and shares features with Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, cardiovascular disease, and diabetes. The aging eye can function as a model for studying basic mechanisms of aging and, vice versa, well-defined hallmarks of aging can be used as tools to understand age-related eye disease.

Negative Selection Allows DNA Mismatch Repair-Deficient Mouse Fibroblasts In Vitro to Tolerate High Levels of Somatic Mutations.

Substantial numbers of somatic mutations have been found to accumulate with age in different human tissues. Clonal cellular amplification of some of these mutations can cause cancer and other diseases. However, it is as yet unclear if and to what extent an increased burden of random mutations can affect cellular function without clonal amplification. We tested this in cell culture, which avoids the limitation that an increased mutation burden in vivo typically leads to cancer. We performed single-cell whole-genome sequencing of primary fibroblasts from DNA mismatch repair (MMR) deficient Msh2-/- mice and littermate control animals after long-term passaging. Apart from analyzing somatic mutation burden we analyzed clonality, mutational signatures, and hotspots in the genome, characterizing the complete landscape of somatic mutagenesis in normal and MMR-deficient mouse primary fibroblasts during passaging. While growth rate of Msh2-/- fibroblasts was not significantly different from the controls, the number of de novo single-nucleotide variants (SNVs) increased linearly up until at least 30,000 SNVs per cell, with the frequency of small insertions and deletions (INDELs) plateauing in the Msh2-/- fibroblasts to about 10,000 INDELS per cell. We provide evidence for negative selection and large-scale mutation-driven population changes, including significant clonal expansion of preexisting mutations and widespread cell-strain-specific hotspots. Overall, our results provide evidence that increased somatic mutation burden drives significant cell evolutionary changes in a dynamic cell culture system without significant effects on growth. Since similar selection processes against mutations preventing organ and tissue dysfunction during aging are difficult to envision, these results suggest that increased somatic mutation burden can play a causal role in aging and diseases other than cancer.

Evidence for negative selection in human primary fibroblasts to tolerate high somatic mutation loads upon treatment with multiple low doses of N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea.

High-throughput sequencing at the single-cell and single-molecule level has shown that mutation rate is much higher in somatic cells than in the germline, with thousands of mutations accumulating with age in most human tissues. While there is now ample evidence that some of these mutations can clonally amplify and lead to disease, most notably cancer, the total burden of mutations a cell can tolerate without functional decline remains unknown. Here we addressed this question by exposing human primary fibroblasts multiple times to low doses of N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea (ENU) and quantitatively analyzing somatic mutation burden using single-cell whole genome sequencing. The results indicate that individual cells can sustain ∼60,000 single-nucleotide variants (SNVs) with only a slight adverse effect on growth rate. We found evidence for selection against potentially deleterious variants in gene coding regions as well as depletion of mutations in sequences associated with genetic pathways expressed in these human fibroblasts, most notably those relevant for maintaining basic cellular function and growth. However, no evidence of negative selection was found for variants in non-coding regions. We conclude that actively proliferating fibroblasts can tolerate very high levels of somatic mutations without major adverse effects on growth rate via negative selection against damaging coding mutations. Since most tissues in adult organisms have very limited capacity to select against mutations based on a growth disadvantage, these results suggest that a causal effect of somatic mutations in aging and disease cannot be ruled out.

Somatic mutations in aging and disease.

Time always leaves its mark, and our genome is no exception. Mutations in the genome of somatic cells were first hypothesized to be the cause of aging in the 1950s, shortly after the molecular structure of DNA had been described. Somatic mutation theories of aging are based on the fact that mutations in DNA as the ultimate template for all cellular functions are irreversible. However, it took until the 1990s to develop the methods to test if DNA mutations accumulate with age in different organs and tissues and estimate the severity of the problem. By now, numerous studies have documented the accumulation of somatic mutations with age in normal cells and tissues of mice, humans, and other animals, showing clock-like mutational signatures that provide information on the underlying causes of the mutations. In this review, we will first briefly discuss the recent advances in next-generation sequencing that now allow quantitative analysis of somatic mutations. Second, we will provide evidence that the mutation rate differs between cell types, with a focus on differences between germline and somatic mutation rate. Third, we will discuss somatic mutational signatures as measures of aging, environmental exposure, and activities of DNA repair processes. Fourth, we will explain the concept of clonally amplified somatic mutations, with a focus on clonal hematopoiesis. Fifth, we will briefly discuss somatic mutations in the transcriptome and in our other genome, i.e., the genome of mitochondria. We will end with a brief discussion of a possible causal contribution of somatic mutations to the aging process.

Analyzing somatic mutations by single-cell whole-genome sequencing.

Somatic mutations are the cause of cancer and have been implicated in other, noncancerous diseases and aging. While clonally expanded mutations can be studied by deep sequencing of bulk DNA, very few somatic mutations expand clonally, and most are unique to each cell. We describe a detailed protocol for single-cell whole-genome sequencing to discover and analyze somatic mutations in tissues and organs. The protocol comprises single-cell multiple displacement amplification (SCMDA), which ensures efficiency and high fidelity in amplification, and the SCcaller software tool to call single-nucleotide variations and small insertions and deletions from the sequencing data by filtering out amplification artifacts. With SCMDA and SCcaller at its core, this protocol describes a complete procedure for the comprehensive analysis of somatic mutations in a single cell, covering (1) single-cell or nucleus isolation, (2) single-cell or nucleus whole-genome amplification, (3) library preparation and sequencing, and (4) computational analyses, including alignment, variant calling, and mutation burden estimation. Methods are also provided for mutation annotation, hotspot discovery and signature analysis. The protocol takes 12-15 h from single-cell isolation to library preparation and 3-7 d of data processing. Compared with other single-cell amplification methods or single-molecular sequencing, it provides high genomic coverage, high accuracy in single-nucleotide variation and small insertions and deletion calling from the same single-cell genome, and fewer processing steps. SCMDA and SCcaller require basic experience in molecular biology and bioinformatics. The protocol can be utilized for studying mutagenesis and genome mosaicism in normal and diseased human and animal tissues under various conditions.

Chromosome instability and aneuploidy in the mammalian brain.

This review investigates the role of aneuploidy and chromosome instability (CIN) in the aging brain. Aneuploidy refers to an abnormal chromosomal count, deviating from the normal diploid set. It can manifest as either a deficiency or excess of chromosomes. CIN encompasses a broader range of chromosomal alterations, including aneuploidy as well as structural modifications in DNA. We provide an overview of the state-of-the-art methodologies utilized for studying aneuploidy and CIN in non-tumor somatic tissues devoid of clonally expanded populations of aneuploid cells.CIN and aneuploidy, well-established hallmarks of cancer cells, are also associated with the aging process. In non-transformed cells, aneuploidy can contribute to functional impairment and developmental disorders. Despite the importance of understanding the prevalence and specific consequences of aneuploidy and CIN in the aging brain, these aspects remain incompletely understood, emphasizing the need for further scientific investigations.This comprehensive review consolidates the present understanding, addresses discrepancies in the literature, and provides valuable insights for future research efforts.

Somatic mutation burden in relation to aging and functional life span: implications for cellular reprogramming and rejuvenation.

The accrual of somatic mutations has been implicated as causal factors in aging since the 1950s. However, the quantitative analysis of somatic mutations has posed a major challenge due to the random nature of de novo mutations in normal tissues, which has limited analysis to tumors and other clonal lineages. Advances in single-cell and single-molecule next-generation sequencing now allow to obtain, for the first time, detailed insights into the landscape of somatic mutations in different human tissues and cell types as a function of age under various conditions. Here, we will briefly recapitulate progress in somatic mutation analysis and discuss the possible relationship between somatic mutation burden with functional life span, with a focus on differences between germ cells, stem cells, and differentiated cells.

Measuring cell-to-cell expression variability in single-cell RNA-sequencing data: a comparative analysis and applications to B cell aging.

BACKGROUND: Single-cell RNA-sequencing (scRNA-seq) technologies enable the capture of gene expression heterogeneity and consequently facilitate the study of cell-to-cell variability at the cell type level. Although different methods have been proposed to quantify cell-to-cell variability, it is unclear what the optimal statistical approach is, especially in light of challenging data structures that are unique to scRNA-seq data like zero inflation. RESULTS: We systematically evaluate the performance of 14 different variability metrics that are commonly applied to transcriptomic data for measuring cell-to-cell variability. Leveraging simulations and real datasets, we benchmark the metric performance based on data-specific features, sparsity and sequencing platform, biological properties, and the ability to recapitulate true levels of biological variability based on known gene sets. Next, we use scran, the metric with the strongest all-round performance, to investigate changes in cell-to-cell variability that occur during B cell differentiation and the aging processes. The analysis of primary cell types from hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) and B lymphopoiesis reveals unique gene signatures with consistent patterns of variable and stable expression profiles during B cell differentiation which highlights the significance of these methods. Identifying differentially variable genes between young and old cells elucidates the regulatory changes that may be overlooked by solely focusing on mean expression changes and we investigate this in the context of regulatory networks. CONCLUSIONS: We highlight the importance of capturing cell-to-cell gene expression variability in a complex biological process like differentiation and aging and emphasize the value of these findings at the level of individual cell types.

Concurrent analysis of genome and transcriptome in one single cell.

Thus far, multiple techniques for single cell analysis have been developed, yet we lack a relatively simple tool to assess DNA and RNA from the same cell at whole-transcriptome and whole-genome depths. Here we present an updated method for physical separation of cytoplasmic RNA from the nuclei, which allows for simultaneous studies of DNA and RNA from the same single cell. The method consists of three steps - 1) immobilization of a single cell on solid substrate, 2) hypotonic lysis of immobilized single cell, and 3) separation of cytosol containing aqueous phase and immobilized nucleus. We found that DNA and RNA extracted from single cell using our approach is suitable for downstream sequencing-based applications. We demonstrated that the coverage of transcriptome and genome sequencing data obtained after DNA/RNA separation is similar to that observed without separation. We also showed that the separation procedure does not create any noticeable bias in observed mutational load or mutation spectra. Thus, our method can serve as a tool for simultaneous complex analysis of the genome and transcriptome, providing necessary information on the relationship between somatic mutations and the regulation of gene expression.

Expression of retrotransposons contributes to aging in Drosophila.

Retrotransposons are a class of transposable elements capable of self-replication and insertion into new genomic locations. Across species, the mobilization of retrotransposons in somatic cells has been suggested to contribute to the cell and tissue functional decline that occurs during aging. Retrotransposons are broadly expressed across cell types, and de novo insertions have been observed to correlate with tumorigenesis. However, the extent to which new retrotransposon insertions occur during normal aging and their effect on cellular and animal function remains understudied. Here, we use a single nucleus whole genome sequencing approach in Drosophila to directly test whether transposon insertions increase with age in somatic cells. Analyses of nuclei from thoraces and indirect flight muscles using a newly developed pipeline, Retrofind, revealed no significant increase in the number of transposon insertions with age. Despite this, reducing the expression of two different retrotransposons, 412 and Roo, extended lifespan, but did not alter indicators of health such as stress resistance. This suggests a key role for transposon expression and not insertion in regulating longevity. Transcriptomic analyses revealed similar changes to gene expression in 412 and Roo knockdown flies and highlighted changes to genes involved in proteolysis and immune function as potential contributors to the observed changes in longevity. Combined, our data show a clear link between retrotransposon expression and aging.

Mitigating age-related somatic mutation burden.

Genomes are inherently unstable and require constant DNA repair to maintain their genetic information. However, selective pressure has optimized repair mechanisms in somatic cells only to allow transmitting genetic information to the next generation, not to maximize sequence integrity long beyond the reproductive age. Recent studies have confirmed that somatic mutations, due to errors during genome repair and replication, accumulate in tissues and organs of humans and model organisms. Here, we describe recent advances in the quantitative analysis of somatic mutations in vivo. We also review evidence for or against a possible causal role of somatic mutations in aging. Finally, we discuss options to prevent, delay or eliminate de novo, random somatic mutations as a cause of aging.

Biological Restraints on Indefinite Survival.

Multiple observations that organismal life span can be extended by nutritional, genetic, or pharmacological intervention has raised the prospect of transforming medicine with the goal of slowing, stopping, or even reversing age-associated disease and maintaining or restoring health and resilience in the increasing numbers of elderly across the world. The potential for such an enterprise is supported in theory by plant and animal models of negligible senescence, most notably the small, freshwater organism Hydra spp. The existence of some very long-lived species, including bowhead whale, Greenland shark, and giant tortoises, suggests that increased healthy life spans in humans, significantly higher than the current known maximum life span of about 120 years, may be possible. Here we discuss the biological restraints on human life extension based on the evolutionary basis of aging and our current genetic and molecular insights into the processes responsible for age-related loss of function and increased disease risk.

Polygenic prediction of human longevity on the supposition of pervasive pleiotropy.

The highly polygenic nature of human longevity renders cross-trait pleiotropy an indispensable feature of its genetic architecture. Leveraging the genetic correlation between the aging-related traits (ARTs), we sought to model the additive variance in lifespan as a function of cumulative liability from pleiotropic segregating variants. We tracked allele frequency changes as a function of viability across different age bins and prioritized 34 variants with an immediate implication on lipid metabolism, body mass index (BMI), and cognitive performance, among other traits, revealed by PheWAS analysis in the UK Biobank. Given the highly complex and non-linear interactions between the genetic determinants of longevity, we reasoned that a composite polygenic score would approximate a substantial portion of the variance in lifespan and developed the integrated longevity genetic scores (iLGSs) for distinguishing exceptional survival. We showed that coefficients derived from our ensemble model could potentially reveal an interesting pattern of genomic pleiotropy specific to lifespan. We assessed the predictive performance of our model for distinguishing the enrichment of exceptional longevity among long-lived individuals in two replication cohorts and showed that the median lifespan in the highest decile of our composite prognostic index is up to 4.8 years longer. Finally, using the proteomic correlates of iLGS, we identified protein markers associated with exceptional longevity irrespective of chronological age and prioritized drugs with repurposing potentials for gerotherapeutics. Together, our approach demonstrates a promising framework for polygenic modeling of additive liability conferred by ARTs in defining exceptional longevity and assisting the identification of individuals at higher risk of mortality for targeted lifestyle modifications earlier in life. Furthermore, the proteomic signature associated with iLGS highlights the functional pathway upstream of the PI3K-Akt that can be effectively targeted to slow down aging and extend lifespan.

Age-related somatic mutation burden in human tissues.

The genome of multicellular organisms carries the hereditary information necessary for the development of all organs and tissues and to maintain function in adulthood. To ensure the genetic stability of the species, genomes are protected against changes in sequence information. However, genomes are not static. De novo mutations in germline cells are passed on to offspring and generate the variation needed in evolution. Moreover, postzygotic mutations occur in all somatic cells during development and aging. These somatic mutations remain limited to the individual, generating tissues that are genome mosaics. Insight into such mutations and their consequences has been limited due to their extremely low abundance, with most mutations unique for each cell. Recent advances in sequencing, including whole genome sequencing at the single-cell level, have now led to the first insights into somatic mutation burdens in human tissues. Here, we will first briefly describe the latest methodology for somatic mutation analysis, then review our current knowledge of somatic mutation burden in human tissues and, finally, briefly discuss the possible functional impact of somatic mutations on the aging process and age-related diseases, including cancer and diseases other than cancer.

A rare human centenarian variant of SIRT6 enhances genome stability and interaction with Lamin A.

Sirtuin 6 (SIRT6) is a deacylase and mono-ADP ribosyl transferase (mADPr) enzyme involved in multiple cellular pathways implicated in aging and metabolism regulation. Targeted sequencing of SIRT6 locus in a population of 450 Ashkenazi Jewish (AJ) centenarians and 550 AJ individuals without a family history of exceptional longevity identified enrichment of a SIRT6 allele containing two linked substitutions (N308K/A313S) in centenarians compared with AJ control individuals. Characterization of this SIRT6 allele (centSIRT6) demonstrated it to be a stronger suppressor of LINE1 retrotransposons, confer enhanced stimulation of DNA double-strand break repair, and more robustly kill cancer cells compared with wild-type SIRT6. Surprisingly, centSIRT6 displayed weaker deacetylase activity, but stronger mADPr activity, over a range of NAD+ concentrations and substrates. Additionally, centSIRT6 displayed a stronger interaction with Lamin A/C (LMNA), which was correlated with enhanced ribosylation of LMNA. Our results suggest that enhanced SIRT6 function contributes to human longevity by improving genome maintenance via increased mADPr activity and enhanced interaction with LMNA.

Clonal Hematopoiesis Analyses in Clinical, Epidemiologic, and Genetic Aging Studies to Unravel Underlying Mechanisms of Age-Related Dysfunction in Humans.

Aging is characterized by increased mortality, functional decline, and exponential increases in the incidence of diseases such as cancer, stroke, cardiovascular disease, neurological disease, respiratory disease, etc. Though the role of aging in these diseases is widely accepted and considered to be a common denominator, the underlying mechanisms are largely unknown. A significant age-related feature observed in many population cohorts is somatic mosaicism, the detectable accumulation of somatic mutations in multiple cell types and tissues, particularly those with high rates of cell turnover (e.g., skin, liver, and hematopoietic cells). Somatic mosaicism can lead to the development of cellular clones that expand with age in otherwise normal tissues. In the hematopoietic system, this phenomenon has generally been referred to as "clonal hematopoiesis of indeterminate potential" (CHIP) when it applies to a subset of clones in which mutations in driver genes of hematologic malignancies are found. Other mechanisms of clonal hematopoiesis, including large chromosomal alterations, can also give rise to clonal expansion in the absence of conventional CHIP driver gene mutations. Both types of clonal hematopoiesis (CH) have been observed in studies of animal models and humans in association with altered immune responses, increased mortality, and disease risk. Studies in murine models have found that some of these clonal events are involved in abnormal inflammatory and metabolic changes, altered DNA damage repair and epigenetic changes. Studies in long-lived individuals also show the accumulation of somatic mutations, yet at this advanced age, carriership of somatic mutations is no longer associated with an increased risk of mortality. While it remains to be elucidated what factors modify this genotype-phenotype association, i.e., compensatory germline genetics, cellular context of the mutations, protective effects to diseases at exceptional age, it points out that the exceptionally long-lived are key to understand the phenotypic consequences of CHIP mutations. Assessment of the clinical significance of somatic mutations occurring in blood cell types for age-related outcomes in human populations of varied life and health span, environmental exposures, and germline genetic risk factors will be valuable in the development of personalized strategies tailored to specific somatic mutations for healthy aging.