Changes in holopelagic Sargassum spp. biomass composition across an unusual year.

The year 2021 marked a decade of holopelagic sargassum (morphotypes Sargassum natans I and VIII, and Sargassum fluitans III) stranding on the Caribbean and West African coasts. Beaching of millions of tons of sargassum negatively impacts coastal ecosystems, economies, and human health. Additionally, the La Soufrière volcano erupted in St. Vincent in April 2021, at the start of the sargassum season. We investigated potential monthly variations in morphotype abundance and biomass composition of sargassum harvested in Jamaica and assessed the influence of processing methods (shade-drying vs. frozen samples) and of volcanic ash exposure on biochemical and elemental components. S. fluitans III was the most abundant morphotype across the year. Limited monthly variations were observed for key brown algal components (phlorotannins, fucoxanthin, and alginate). Shade-drying did not significantly alter the contents of proteins but affected levels of phlorotannins, fucoxanthin, mannitol, and alginate. Simulation of sargassum and volcanic ash drift combined with age statistics suggested that sargassum potentially shared the surface layer with ash for ~50 d, approximately 100 d before stranding in Jamaica. Integrated elemental analysis of volcanic ash, ambient seawater, and sargassum biomass showed that algae harvested from August had accumulated P, Al, Fe, Mn, Zn, and Ni, probably from the ash, and contained less As. This ash fingerprint confirmed the geographical origin and drift timescale of sargassum. Since environmental conditions and processing methods influence biomass composition, efforts should continue to improve understanding, forecasting, monitoring, and valorizing sargassum, particularly as strandings of sargassum show no sign of abating.

Scavenging of select radionuclides and trace elements by pelagic Sargassum in the Caribbean Sea.

In recent years, the North Atlantic and the Caribbean Sea have experienced unusual and unprecedented pelagic Sargassum blooms, which may adversely affect coastal ecosystems and productive ocean. Sargassum has the potential to scavenge trace elements and radionuclides from seawater, and when bioaccumulated and thus concentrated, can pose a potential threat to higher trophic organisms, including humans that consume impacted seafood. In this study, trace elements and naturally-occurring U/Th-series radionuclides were measured in Sargassum that were collected in the coastal waters of the Caribbean Sea (Antigua/Barbuda, Belize, and Barbados) to better define baseline concentrations and activities, and to assess the scavenging potential for these trace elements and radionuclides. The mean concentration of trace elements observed in Sargassum collected across these three Caribbean Sea are ranked accordingly to the following descending order: Sr > As>Fe > Mn > Zn > Ni > V > C > Cd > Se > Co > Cr > Pb > Ag > Hg. 210-Po and 210Pb activities in Sargassum were observed to be more elevated than previously reported values.

Pelagic Sargassum events in Jamaica: Provenance, morphotype abundance, and influence of sample processing on biochemical composition of the biomass.

Pelagic Sargassum species have been known for centuries in the Sargasso Sea of the North Atlantic Ocean. In 2011, a new area concentrating high biomass of these brown algae started developing in the Tropical Atlantic Ocean. Since then, massive and recurrent Sargassum influxes have been reported in the Caribbean and off the coast of Western Africa. These Sargassum events have a major negative impact on coastal ecosystems and nearshore marine life, and affect socio-economic sectors, including public health, coastal living, tourism, fisheries, and maritime transport. Despite recent advances in the forecasting of Sargassum events, and elucidation of the seaweed composition, many knowledge gaps remain, including morphotype abundance during Sargassum events, drift of the seaweeds in the months prior to stranding, and influence of sample processing methods on biomass biochemical composition. Using seaweeds harvested on the coasts of Jamaica in summer of 2020, we observed that S. fluitans III was the most abundant morphotype at different times and sampling locations. No clear difference in the geographical origin, or provenance, of the Sargassum mats was observed. The majority of Sargassum backtracked from both north and south of Jamaica experienced ambient temperatures of around 27 °C and salinity in the range of 34-36 psu before stranding. We also showed that cheap (sun) compared to expensive (freeze) drying techniques influence the biochemical composition of biomass. Sun-drying increased the proportion of phenolic compounds, but had a deleterious impact on fucoxanthin content and on the quantities of monosaccharides, except for mannitol. Effects on the content of fucose containing sulfated polysaccharides depended on the method used for their extraction, and limited variation was observed in ash, protein, and fatty acid content within most of the sample locations investigated. These observations are important for the storage and transport of the biomass in the context of its valorisation.

Genetic composition of queen conch (Lobatus gigas) population on Pedro Bank, Jamaica and its use in fisheries management.

The queen conch fishery in Jamaica is sustained by Pedro Bank, which is the main harvesting site located approximately 80 km south-west from Kingston. Due to its relative size, Pedro Bank has been subdivided into zones for management purposes by the Fisheries Division and the Veterinary Services Division. Understanding whether these sub-divisions reflect different sub-populations is critical for managing exploitation levels because fisheries management must demonstrate that harvesting does not endanger the future viability of the population as queen conch are on Appendix II of the Convention in Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This determination is essential for the continued export to international markets such as the European Union. Two hundred and eight samples were collected across the entire Pedro Bank and were genetically characterized using nine polymorphic microsatellite loci. Population structure analysis for Lobatus gigas from Pedro Bank yielded low but significant values (FST = 0.009: p = 0.006) and suggested a high magnitude of gene flow indicative of a fit and viable population throughout the bank. Analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) indicated a 100% variation within individual samples with little variation (0.9%) between populations. In contrast pairwise genetic comparisons identified significant differences between populations located to the south eastern and eastern region of the bank to those in the central and western locations. Bayesian clustering analysis also indicated the likelihood of two population sub-divisions (K = 2) on Pedro Bank. The results provided evidence of a weak but significant population structure which has crucial implications for the fishing industry as it suggests the use of ecosystem based management (EBM) in setting quotas to promote sustainable harvesting of L. gigas within each monitoring zone on Pedro Bank.

Characterization of microplastics in the surface waters of Kingston Harbour.

Microplastic contamination of the marine environment has garnered global attention in recent years, and its distribution and effects in many small island developing states (SIDS) are still undetermined. As such, this study serves to detail an investigation of the abundance, spatial distribution and characteristics of surface water microplastics in the Kingston Harbour, a heavily polluted embayment in Jamaica. Fortnightly sampling with a manta trawl (335 µm mesh) revealed non-variable concentrations of 0-5.73 particles/m3 (0-2,697,674.13 particles/km2) across stations adjacent to mangrove forests, key nursery grounds for many commercially important finfish and shellfish. Microplastics found in samples were predominantly fragments and were between 1 mm and 2.5 mm. Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy identified polyethylene and polypropylene in fragments selected for analysis. These data serve to establish a crucial baseline of the status of microplastic pollution in Kingston Harbour.

Assessing the phytoplankton and water quality of Kingston Harbour and Hellshire coast, Jamaica, after the implementation of a waste water treatment facility / Evaluación de la calidad de las aguas de la Bahía de Kingston y la costa Hellshire, Jamaica, después de la implementación de una planta de tratamiento de aguas residuales

Deteriorating water quality of Kingston Harbour, due primarily to sewage discharge and its effect on nearby Hellshire Coast, has been an issue since the 1970s. The implementation of a new sewage treatment facility in 2007 to receive the harbour’s waste at Soapberry was expected to make a positive difference. Physico-chemical and biological parameters were used to assess water quality to determine the effect of the facility. Eleven stations used in earlier studies (1990 to 1998) were re-sampled to represent Kingston, Hunts Bay and North East Hellshire coastline over a four week sampling regime between May and June 2011. While temperature, salinity, turbidity, dissolved oxygen and pH remained unchanged between the 1990’s and 2011, BOD5, faecal coliform and nitrate concentrations indicated that the water quality had improved minimally in Kinsgton and Hellshire,and deteriorated significantly in Hunts. Phytoplankton biomass decreased in Kingston (from 3.84 mg m-3 in 1998 to 2.81 mg m-3 in 2011) and increased significantly in Hunts (from 14.69 mg m-3 in 1998 to 24.17 mg m-3 in 2011). Biomass along Hellshire was similar (2.15 mg m-3 in 1998; 2.45 mg m-3 in 2011). In 1998 the nanoplankton biomass (2.7 to 20μm) dominated throughout the Harbour. In 2011 Hunts Bay was dominated by net-plankton (>20μm), indicative of eutrophic waters.

El deterioro de la calidad del agua del puerto de Kingston es debido principalmente a la descarga de aguas residuales y su efecto en los alrededores de la Costa de Hellshire, esto ha sido un problema desde la década de 1970. La implementación de una nueva planta de tratamiento de aguas residuales en 2007 para recibir residuos del Puerto de Kingston en Soapberry se esperaba hiciera una diferencia positiva. Parámetros físico-químicos y biológicos fueron utilizados para evaluar la calidad del agua y determinar el efecto de la planta de tratamiento. Once estaciones que fueron utilizadas en estudios anteriores (1990-1998) se muestrearon nuevamente para representar el puerto de Kingston, Bahía Hunts y la costa North East Hellshire sobre un régimen de muestreo de cuatro semanas entre mayo y junio de 2011. Mientras la temperatura, salinidad, turbidez, oxígeno disuelto y pH se mantuvieron sin cambios entre los años noventa y 2011, BOD5, coliformes fecales y concentraciones de nitratos indicaron que había mejorado la calidad del agua del puerto y la costa mínimamente mientras que la calidad del agua en la bahía Hunts se había deteriorado significativamente. La biomasa del fitoplancton disminuyó en el puerto de Kingston (de 3.84mg m-3 en 1998 a 2.81mg m-3 en el 2011), y aumentó significativamente en bahía Hunts (de 14.69mg m-3 en 1998 a 24.17mg m-3 en el 2011). La biomasa en la costa permaneció similar (de 2.15mg m-3 en 1998 a 2.45mg m-3 en 2011). En 1998 la biomasa de nanoplancton (2.7 a 20μm) dominó a lo largo del puerto. En el 2011 la bahía Hunts era dominada por neto-plancton (>20μm), indicativo de aguas eutróficas.

Rapid reassessment of the eutrophication status of Kingston Harbour, Jamaica using the zooplankton community / Reevaluación rápida del estado de eutrofización del puerto de Kingston, Jamaica utilizando la comunidad de zooplancton

Previous extensive studies of zooplankton distribution in the eutrophic Kingston Harbour established that it was being continuously contaminated. We assessed the community in 2011, 17 years after a previous study and five years after the introduction of a tertiary waste water system. Sampling was conducted for four weeks at eight stations identical to those sampled in a previous study. We used horizontal surface tows with a 200µm net. A total of 73 zooplankton taxa were identified and copepods dominated with 20 species. Mean total abundances were high, ranging from a minimum of 2 383 animals m-3 in the southern region of Hunts Bay to 194 166 animals m-3at the Inner Harbour. Five zooplankton taxa (Acartia tonsa, Paracalanus spp., Temora turbinata, Penilia avirostris and Lucifer faxoni) that were previously identified as indicators, were again important in the Harbour. The overall zooplankton abundances were similar and in some cases higher than the previous study. There was no significant improvement in the water quality since the introduction of the treatment system at Soapberry. This may be a result of unknown nutrient inputs or of nutrient remaining in the sediments.

Extensos estudios previos de la distribución de zooplancton en el Puerto de Kingston estableció que ha sido contaminado continuamente. Evaluamos la comunidad en el 2011, 17 años después de un estudio previo y cuatro años después de la introducción de un sistema de lagunas de aguas residuales terciarias. Utilizamos arrastres superficiales horizontalescon una red de 200 µm. Se identificó un total de 73 taxones de zooplancton y copépodos de los cuales los predominaron 20 especies. La media de las abundancias totales fueron altas y los valores oscilaron entre un mínimo de 2 383 animales m-3 en la zona sur de Bahía Hunts a 194 166 animales m-3 en lo interior del puerto. Cinco taxones de zooplancton (Acartia tonsa, Paracalanus spp., T. turbinata, Penilia avirostris y Lucifer faxoni) identificados previamente como indicadores, fueron importantes de nuevo en la Bahía. La abundancia total de zooplancton fue similar y en algunos casos superior a la del estudio anterior. No hubo mejoría significativa en la calidad del agua desde la introducción del sistema de tratamiento terciario en Soapberry. Esto puede ser resultado de la entrada continua de nutrientes desconocidos y no regulados en los sedimentos.

Status of the coral reefs in Foul and Folly Bays, Morant Wetlands, south-eastern Jamaica, with emphasis on corals and macroalgae / Estado de los arrecifes de coral en Foul and Folly Bays, Morant Wetlands, sureste de Jamaica, con énfasis en corales y macroalgas

Foul and Folly Bays are located within the Morant Wetlands near the eastern tip of Jamaica. They have never been investigated but were believed to be important for larval productivity because of the extent of benthic habitats, absence of major coastal developments and remote location. The study was aimed at providing baseline data on the spatial distribution and status of corals and associated benthos. We investigated coral reefs and associated areas with phototransects at eight stations analysed with the Coral Point Count software. Most areas were dominated by algae, evidence of a phase shift from coral to algal reefs. Coral cover varied significantly across the bays (ANOVA, p= 0.0342) with a maximum of 27.03% at the deepest station and a mean of 5.6% at all other stations combined. Mean cover of macroalgae was 39% and varied significantly across stations (α= 0.05, F= 7.472, p= 0.005). The deepest station also had the highest percentage of calcareous algae and live coral while dead coral with algae (DCA) was a significant variable across all other stations (ANOVA, p<0.001). Gorgonians (ANOVA, p<0.001), sponges and urchins were also assessed. Diadema antillarum was not observed at any station. Overall the status of the reefs was poor, probably due to overfishing, absence of urchins and the resultant algal proliferation.

Las bahías Foul y Folly se encuentran dentro de los Humedales Morant cerca de la punta oriental de la isla de Jamaica. Estos dos bahías nunca han sido investigadas pero se cree que son áreas importantes para la productividad larvaria debido a la extensión de los hábitats bentónicos, ausencia de desarrollos importantes a lo largo de la costa y la ubicación remota de la zona. El estudio tuvo como objetivo proporcionar datos de referencia sobre la distribución espacial y el estado de los corales y del bentos asociado. Investigamos los arrecifes coralinos y áreas asociadas utilizando fototransectos en ocho estaciones analizadas con el programa Coral Point Count. La mayoría de las áreas tuvieron predominio algal, mostrando evidencia del desplazamiento de fase de coral a algas. La cobertura de coral varió significativamente a través de las bahías (ANOVA , p= 0.0342), con un máximo de 27.03% en la estación estación más profunda y una media de 5.6% en todas las demás estaciones combinadas. La media de porcentaje de cobertura de macroalgas fue de 39% y varió significativamente entre las estaciones (α= 0.05, F= 7.472, p= 0.005). La estación mas profunda presentaba el mayor porcentaje de algas calcáreas y coral vivo, mientras que el coral muerto con algas (DCA) fue una variable significativa en todas las demás estaciones (ANOVA , p<0.001). También se evaluaron las gorgonias (ANOVA , p<0.001), esponjas y erizos de mar. No se observó Diadema antillarum en todas las estaciones dentro de los transectos. En general, el estado de los arrecifes era pobre, probablemente debido a la pesca excesiva, la ausencia de erizos y la proliferación de algas resultante.

The planktonic communities of the Jamaican south-east coast; a comparison of harbor, shelf and oceanic areas / Comunidades planctónicas de la costa sudoriental jamaiquina; una comparación de puerto, estante y áreas oceánicas

Few studies have compared water quality and plankton along the eutrophication gradient from Kingston Harbour to oceanic waters around Jamaica. To compare the planktonic community along the expected nutrient gradient, we sampled every two weeks at four stations, from eutrophic Kingston Harbour to oceanic California Bank. Phytoplankton was assessed from whole water Niskin bottle casts and zooplankton by vertical hauls with plankton nets of three different mesh sizes: 64µm, 200µm, and 600µm. Total phytoplankton biomass declined sharply away from the harbour (1.0 μg L-1 at the Harbour Shoal Beacon to 0.2 μg L-1 at California Bank). Characteristic estuarine phytoplankton genera -such as Ceratium, Gonyaulax, Gyrodinium and Rhizosolenia- dominated harbour samples while genera characteristic of offshore locations -such as Asterionelliopsis, Navicula, Nitzschia, Rhizosolenia and Thalassionema- dominated California Bank. Highest phytoplankton densities (mean values of 34 174 cells L-1) were found at the harbor mouth. Mean zooplankton abundances ranged from maximum (5 858.5m-3) at Beacon to minimum (2 124.2 m-3) at California; 171 species of zooplankton were identified and copepods dominated with 76 species. Overall, 75 species of zooplankton were identified from Beacon, 107 from Port Royal Cays- South East Cay, 110 from the exposed shelf edge- Windward Edge, and 95 from the oceanic California Bank. Larval forms dominated; copepod nauplii, fish eggs and echinoderm larvae occurred at all sites. Lucifer faxoni and Penilia avirostris were indicative of harbor waters and Microsetella sp. and Farranula carinata of offshore waters. Some zooplankton taxa, like L. faxoni, Paracalanus parvus and copepod nauplii, despite showing gradual decline with distance from Beacon to the Edge, increased in abundance at the furthest station, California. California Bank clearly experiences enrichment which at times can be as high as near-shore areas, but the planktonic community is unique and similar only to those at other offshore station. To be reliable, characterization of water masses must involve a range of physicochemical and biological parameters.

Pocos estudios han comparado la calidad de agua y plancton a lo largo de un gradiente de eutrofización en el Puerto Kingston con aguas oceánicas en Jamaica. Para comparar la comunidad de plancton a lo largo del gradiente de nutrientes esperado, muestreamos cada dos semanas en cuatro estaciones, desde el eutrófico Puerto Kingston hasta el Banco oceánico California. Evaluamos el fitoplancton de agua entera en botellas de molde tipo Niskin usando la biomasa total y y zooplancton por arrastres verticales con redes de plancton de tres tamaños de malla diferente: 64µm, 200µm y 600µm. La biomasa total de fitoplancton mostró una fuerte caída al aumentar la distancia desde el puerto Kingston (1.0µg L-1 en el Puerto Shoal Beacon a 0.2µg L-1 en el Banco California). Géneros característicos estuarinos como Ceratium, Gonyaulax, Gyrodinium y Rhizosolenia dominaron en las muestras del Puerto Kingston mientras que géneros característicos de costa afuera como Asterionelliopsis, Navicula, Nitzschia, Rhizosolenia y Thalassionema dominaron en el Banco California. Las densidades más altas de fitoplancton (valores promedio de 34 174 células L-1) se encontraron en la boca del puerto. Valores promedio de zooplancton oscilaban entre un máximo (5 858.5m-3) en el Puerto Shoal Beacon (HSB) a un mínimo (2 124.19m-3) en el Banco California (CB), 171 especies del zooplancton fueron identificadas, de los cuales los copépodos dominaban con 76 especies. En general, se identificaron 75 especies del zooplancton en HSB, 107 de los Cayos Port Royal (SEC), 110 del borde de la plataforma expuesta (WE) y 95 del Banco oceánico (CB). Las formas larvarias eran numéricamente dominantes con nauplios de copépodos, huevos de peces y larvas de equinodermos que ocurren en todos los sitios. La dominancia de especies individuales fue utilizada para caracterizar las masas de agua. Lucifer faxoni y Penilia avirostris fueron indicativos de las aguas del puerto y Microsetella sp. y Farranula carinata fueron identificados como indicadores de aguas costa afuera. Taxones seleccionados de de zooplancton, como L. faxoni, Paracalanus parvus y nauplios de copépodos, a pesar de mostrar un decline gradual con la distancia desde el puerto de Kingston a la otra estación costa afuera, aumentan su abundancia en la estación más lejana, Banco California. Banco California es claramente una zona que experimenta un enriquecimiento que a veces puede ser tan alto como las áreas cerca de la costa, pero la comunidad planctónica es única y similar únicamente a las estaciones costa afuera. Para ser confiable, la caracterización de masas de agua debe implicar una serie de parámetros físico-químicos y biológicos.

Development of a protocol for sampling and analysis of ballast water in Jamaica / Desarrollo de un protocolo de muestreo y análisis de agua de lastre en Jamaica

The transfer of ballast by the international shipping industry has negatively impacted the environment. To design such a protocol for the area, the ballast water tanks of seven bulk cargo vessels entering a Jamaican port were sampled between January 28, 2010 and August 17, 2010. Vessels originated from five ports and used three main routes, some of which conducted ballast water exchange. Twenty-six preserved and 22 live replicate zooplankton samples were obtained. Abundance and richness were higher than at temperate ports. Exchange did not alter the biotic composition but reduced the abundance. Two of the live sample replicates, containing 31.67 and 16.75 viable individuals m-3, were non-compliant with the International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships’ Ballast Water and Sediments. Approximately 12% of the species identified in the ballast water were present in the waters nearest the port in 1995 and 11% were present in the entire bay in 2005. The protocol designed from this study can be used to aid the establishment of a ballast water management system in the Caribbean or used as a foundation for the development of further protocols.

La transferencia de lastre por el transporte marítimo internacional ha impactado negativamente el ambiente. Con el fin de diseñar un protocolo, los tanques de agua de lastre de siete barcos carga en el puerto jamaiquino fueron muestreados entre el 28 de enero del 2010 y el 17 de agosto del 2010. Contenedores provenían de cinco puertos, utilizan tres rutas principales, algunos de los cuales conllevan un intercambio de agua de lastre. Se obtuvieron 26 muestras de zooplankton preservado y 22 vivo durante este periodo. La abundancia y riqueza de las muestras fue superior que en clima templado. El intercambio de agua de lastre no alteró la composición biótica pero disminuyó la abundancia. Dos de las muestras vivan, contenían 31.67 y 16.75 individuos viables m-3, no compatibles con el Reglamento D-2 estándar de la Convención Internacional para el control y manejo del agua de lastre y sedimentos de barcos. Aproximadamente el 12% de las especies identificadas en el agua de lastre estaban presentes en las aguas del puerto más cercano en 1995 y 11% estaban presentes en toda la bahía en el año 2005. El protocolo diseñado a partir de este estudio puede ser utilizado para ayudar al establecimiento de un sistema de gestión del agua de lastre en el Caribe o usado como una base para el desarrollo de futuros protocolos.

Coral and algal community primary succession on new vertical substrate at Rackham’s Cay, Port Royal, Jamaica / Sucesión primaria de una comunidad de coral y algas en el nuevo sustrato vertical en el Cayo de Rackham, Puerto Royal, Jamaica

Jamaica’s trans-shipment industry is amongst the largest in the Caribbean with 90% of trans-shipment activities occurring in Kingston Harbour. The eastern ship channel is populated with patch and fringing coral reefs. In 2002, approximately 20% of an originally sloping face of Rackham’s Cay, on the southern edge of the channel, was cut vertically to 18m and dredged to widen the channel. The successional changes on the newly created vertical limestone wall was assessed between 2009 and 2012 at 5m, 10m and 15m depths using bi-annual photographs of fixed 1 m² quadrats. Photographs were analyzed using Coral Point Count. No colonization of either algal or coralline species was observed at 15m. Initially calcareous and fleshy algae dominated at 5m but showed a gradual decrease over time. Calcareous algae dominated at 10m and increaseed gradually over the 4 years. Stony corals at both 5m and 10m had overall low cover and slow colonization; the shallower depth had more coverage (4.1% maximum in 2011). Siderastrea sidera -which dominated Rackham’s Cay before dredging- was consistently present in low coverage. Colonization by species of Acropora and Scolymia indicate slower but better succession at 10m. Ten years following dredging activities, colonization and recruitment have been slow but successful at 5m and 10m; species previously described as abundant lead the colonization. We recommend limiting coral relocation activities to depths not exceeding 10m.

La industria de transbordo en Jamaica es de las mas grandes en el Caribe con el 90% de las actividades de tránsito que ocurren en el puerto de Kingston. El canal oriental de la bahía está poblado de un fragmento y franja de arrecife de coral. En el 2002, aproximadamente el 20% de una cara del Cayo Rackham fue cortado verticalmente a 18m y dragado para facilitar la ampliación del canal. Los cambios sucesionales en la pared de piedra caliza vertical se evaluó entre el 2009 y 2012 en 5m, 10m y 15m de profundidad usando fotografías bianuales en cuadrantes de 1m². Las fotografías fueron analizadas usando “Conteo de Puntos de Coral”. A 15m de profundidad, no se observó ninguna colonización de especies coralinas o algas. Las algas calcáreas y carnosas dominaron inicialmente los 5m de profundidad y mostraron una disminución gradual en el tiempo. Algas calcáreas dominaron los 10m de profundidad y también mostraban un incremento gradual en los 4 años. Corales pétreos en 5m y 10m de profundidad mostraron un % de cobertura bajo y lenta colonización, con la menor profundidad y teniendo la mayor cobertura coralina (4.1% máximo en 2011). Sidera Siderastrea que dominaba Cayo Rackham antes del dragado fue la especie coral constantemente presente aunque en bajo % de cobertura. La colonización por especies de los géneros Acropora y Scolymia son indicación de sucesión más lenta pero mejor a 10m de profundidad. Los diez años siguientes después de las dragas, la colonización de coral y reclutamiento ha sido lento pero exitoso en 5m y 10m de profundidad con especies previamente descritas como siendo abundantes en la zona. Recomendamos limitar las actividades de reubicación de coral a profundidades no superiores a 10m.