Understanding Antibiotic Resistance as a Perceived Threat towards Dairy Cattle through Beliefs and Practices: A Survey-Based Study of Dairy Farmers.

Antibiotic use is an important component in dairy herd management both to treat bacterial diseases and to maximize animal welfare. However, there is concern among scientists that antibiotic misuse and/or overuse by farmers might promote the emergence of resistant pathogens. We conducted a cross-sectional web-based questionnaire study with dairy farmers/managers in New York, USA to evaluate their (i) level of concern about antibiotic resistance and (ii) interest in adopting new judicious antibiotic use practices regarding mastitis treatment. A total of 118 responses were subjected to statistical analysis. The findings revealed that nearly half (45%) of study participants were undecided or disagreed that antibiotic resistance due to antibiotic use in dairy farming may negatively impact the health of dairy cattle. In contrast, the majority (78%) of participants self-reported that they do not treat with antibiotics at the first sign of mastitis, and the majority (66%) have either fully or partially implemented culture-based mastitis treatment on their farm. The self-reported adoption of culture-based mastitis treatment practices was statistically significantly associated with higher numbers of injectable and intramammary doses of antibiotics used on the participants' farms. These findings will aid future research investigations on how to promote sustainable antibiotic use practices in dairy cattle.

New York State dairy veterinarians' perceptions of antibiotic use and resistance: A qualitative interview study.

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) limits the ability to prevent and treat infection, making AMR one of the foremost threats to human and animal health. Animal agriculture's large use of antibiotics in food animals is an important factor in AMR. As such, policies to reduce antibiotic use and combat AMR in animal agriculture in the United States (US) have been in place or are developed. One key to the success of these policies in the US is understanding how a major stakeholder - veterinarians treating dairy cattle - perceive the scale of antibiotic use, the threat of AMR and the utility of antibiotic use policies. We interviewed 9 dairy veterinarians in New York State and conducted an iterative thematic analysis of their responses, through which five themes were identified: 1. veterinarians' views of the frequency and reasons for antibiotic misuse, 2. their ideas on reducing antibiotic use, 3. perceptions of AMR within the dairy industry, 4. view of organic farming and how it relates to animal welfare, and 5. the impact of consumers' beliefs on the dairy industry. Participants viewed antibiotic overuse as largely due to farmers' concern for the welfare of their cattle and desire to treat ailments swiftly. Interviewees believed that it was possible to reduce antibiotic use through regulation, such as the Veterinary Feed Directive and improved herd management activities, such as better colostrum management, culture-based mastitis treatment, and improved housing conditions. They did not view the dairy industry as a significant contributor to AMR, particularly when compared to the human medical industry. Interviewees also offered their (unsolicited) opinion on organic dairy farming in the US and expressed frustration with the limited treatment options available in organic dairy farming and how this dynamic may potentially compromise animal welfare. Finally, they commented on the impact of consumers' beliefs on the dairy industry, expressing frustration with how misinformation about the dairy industry has led to consumer driven changes. As consumer beliefs have an impact on the dairy industry, this influence could be leveraged to further decrease antibiotic use. These findings can help guide future efforts in veterinarian-client communication and the development and implementation of effective policies in New York State. These results also highlight the need for more quantitative research on antibiotic use in the dairy industry, as without this data it will be difficult to ascertain the true impact of policy interventions.

How does public perception of antibiotic use on dairy farms contribute to self-reported purchasing of organic?

The United States regulates the use of antibiotics in agricultural settings to address the global antibiotic resistance problem. Conventional dairy cows treated with antibiotics are kept in the herd and after the withholding period milk is harvested. On organic farms, the US organic standard on antibiotic use requires sick dairy cows to be treated, but treated cows must be removed from the herd and their milk can never again be sold as certified organic. This study investigated the US public's perceptions of the organic dairy farming, antibiotic use on dairy farms, and whether these perceptions affect consumer's self-reported purchasing behavior for organic. We used a nationally representative phone-based survey of 1000 US adults and characterized participants' self-reported (i) knowledge of the legality of antibiotic use on dairy farms (conventional and organic) and (ii) frequency of purchasing organic instead of conventional dairy products, as well as several demographic and other variables. The results indicated that participants' knowledge about antibiotic use practices in dairy farming have no effect on their self-reported purchasing behavior for organic or conventional dairy products. However, respondents who were familiar with the regulations of antibiotic use on dairy farms were more likely to oppose the US organic standard on antibiotic use in dairy farming and thought that past antibiotic use should not permanently remove a cow's organic status. These findings contribute to understanding of public perceptions that shape the US dairy organic market. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Income, employment, health and political values, but not consumers' knowledge about antibiotic use in dairy farming, affect self-reported purchasing behavior for organic dairy products. However, consumers who are familiar with the regulations of antibiotic use on US dairy farms disagree with the US organic standard on antibiotic use mandating loss of organic status for any cattle treated with antibiotics. These findings may be useful to organic markets.

Survey of perceptions and attitudes of an international group of veterinarians regarding antibiotic use and resistance on dairy cattle farms.

Veterinarians are the main source of information for farmers regarding the responsible use of antibiotics in farm animals and how to reduce the risk of antibiotic resistance. Consequently, understanding how veterinarians perceive their clients' and colleagues' antibiotic use and their own beliefs about the development of antibiotic resistance is essential to determining areas in which antibiotic use practices can be improved to minimize the emergence of antibiotic resistance. An international cross-sectional study was carried out using a questionnaire designed to elucidate perceptions, attitudes, and concerns of dairy veterinarians regarding antibiotic use and the emergence of antibiotic resistance in dairy farming. The questionnaire was initially administered to veterinarians attending the International Bovine Mastitis Conference in Milano, Italy, 2018, followed by veterinarian members of the National Mastitis Council, and all conference registrants. A total of 71 participants from 21 countries participated in the survey, the majority were from the United States and member countries of the European Union. Logistic regression analysis was conducted to identify predictors of veterinarians' level of concern about the development of antibiotic resistance on their clients' farms. Associations were described with odds ratios (ORs) and the associated 95 % confidence intervals (95 % CIs). Free text responses where participants shared their views on the reason for overprescribing antibiotics by veterinarians were analyzed using thematic analysis. Participants perceived that nearly half of their clients overuse or inappropriately use antibiotics, and nearly half of their colleagues overprescribe or inappropriately prescribe antibiotics. After controlling for other factors, the odds of veterinarians being concerned about antibiotic resistance on dairy farms they served decreased by a factor of 0.91 for each additional year of participants' experience working with dairy cattle (OR = 0.91, 95 % CI = 0.84-0.99). Participants concerned about antibiotic resistance on clients' dairy farms were also more likely to consider better adherence to drug labelling as important for reducing farmers' antibiotic use (OR = 6.86, 95 % CI = 1.21-38.93). Thematic analysis revealed four themes surrounding the perceived reasons for veterinarians' overprescribing of antibiotics: (i) knowledge, (ii) attitudes, (iii) barriers, and (iv) rules and regulations. The study findings will aid in the development of strategies to improve antibiotic use in dairy farming and educational initiatives looking to enhance the communication between veterinarians and farmers about judicious use of antibiotics.

New York State dairy farmers' perceptions of antibiotic use and resistance: A qualitative interview study.

Antibiotic resistance is a global problem affecting both human and animal health. Ensuring the strategic and effective use of antibiotics is paramount to combatting the emergence and spread of resistance. This study explored New York State (NYS) dairy farmers' perceptions regarding antibiotic use in dairy farming and antibiotic resistance. Dairy farmers' perceptions were assessed through semi-structured, in-person interviews. Twenty interviews with farm owners and/or managers of 15 conventional and five USDA certified organic dairy farms with 40 to 2,300 lactating cows were conducted. Thematic analysis was used to assess, compare and contrast transcripts for farmers' characterization of their beliefs, values, and concerns. Conventional dairy farmers had a low level of concern about the possible impacts of on-farm antibiotic resistance on human health and believed their antibiotic use was already judicious. Generally, they believed their cattle's health would suffer if antibiotic use were further curtailed. Conventional farmers expressed frustration over the possibility of more stringent governmental, milk cooperative, buyer, or marketer requirements for antibiotic use and associated animal welfare in the future. They attributed expanding regulations in part to misinformed consumer preferences, that farmers felt were influenced by the marketing of organic dairy products. Organic dairy farmers were generally more concerned about issues related to antibiotic resistance than conventional farmers. Both conventional and organic farmers placed emphasis on disease prevention through herd health management rather than treatment. In conclusion, the conventional NYS dairy farmers in this study were skeptical of the need for and benefits of reduced antibiotic use on their dairy farms. Interventions for farmers, delivered by a trusted source such as a veterinarian, that provide training about proper antibiotic use practices and information of possible financial benefits of refining antibiotic use may hold promise.

Superstorm Sandy's impact on the provision of WIC (Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children) services in New York State.

OBJECTIVE: Services provided by the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) were interrupted in 2012 when Superstorm Sandy struck New York State (NYS). The present study evaluates the impact on WIC providers. DESIGN: A focus group, telephone interviews and anonymous online survey were conducted. Qualitative data were analysed by coding transcribed text into key words and identifying major and minor themes for strengths, challenges and recommendations using national public health preparedness capabilities. Survey responses were analysed quantitatively; reported challenges were classified by preparedness capability. SETTING: The focus group was held at a 2014 regional WIC meeting. Interviews and a survey were conducted via telephone in 2014 and online in 2015, respectively. SUBJECTS: WIC staff representing New York City and three NYS counties. RESULTS: In the focus group (n 12) and interviews (n 6), 'emergency operations coordination' was the most cited capability as a strength, 'environmental health protection' (against environmental hazards) as a challenge and 'flexibility' (on rules and procedures) as a recommendation. In the survey (n 24), the capability 'information sharing' was most often cited as a challenge. Most staff (66·6 %) reported their programmes were at least somewhat prepared for future weather-related disasters. Only 16·7 % indicated having practiced a work-related emergency response plan since Sandy. Staff who practiced an emergency response plan were more likely to indicate they were prepared (P < 0·05). CONCLUSIONS: The study identified WIC programme areas requiring preparedness improvements. The research methodology can be utilized to assess the continuity of other public health services during disasters.

C-C motif chemokine ligand (CCL) production in equine peripheral blood mononuclear cells identified by newly generated monoclonal antibodies.

Chemokines are soluble molecules directing immune cell trafficking and homing, mediating inflammation, and initiating immune responses to infection. In horses, the analysis of chemokines has been limited by the lack of specific antibodies. We generated mAbs specific for the equine C-C motif chemokine ligands (CCL) CCL2 (MCP-1), CCL3 (MIP-1α), CCL5 (RANTES) and CCL11 (eotaxin) using hybridoma technology. Antibody specificity was confirmed by intracellular staining of Chinese Hamster Ovary cells transfected with expression vectors encoding for CCL2, CCL3, CCL5, or CCL11. Transfectants were stained with the anti-CCL mAbs. Flow cytometric analysis confirmed the specificity of the different mAbs for the respective chemokine. In addition, equine PBMC were stained after isolation, culture in medium, or stimulation with LPS, or PMA and ionomycin. CCL2 was detected in few cluster of differentiation (CD)14+ monocytes in PBMC stimulated with PMA and ionomycin for 2 h. CCL3 was produced by CD14+ monocytes after 4-6 h culture in medium. After stimulation with PMA and ionomycin for 12-24 h, CCL3 was also expressed in lymphocytes, mainly in CD4+ T cells. Stimulation with LPS reduced the percentage of CCL3+ monocytes in PBMC. CCL5 was detected in PBMC ex vivo in CD4+ and CD8+ T cells. Culture of PBMC for longer than 6 h or stimulation with PMA and ionomycin reduced the percentage of CCL5+ cells. CCL11 was produced by CD4+ T cells in PBMC after stimulation with PMA and ionomycin for 4-24 h. After LPS stimulation of PBMC, CCL2, CCL5, and CCL11 production were comparable to culture in medium alone. ELISAs for each of the four chemokines were developed using pairs of anti-equine CCL mAbs. Supernatants from PMA and ionomycin stimulated PBMC contained detectable amounts of CCL2, CCL3 and CCL5, while CCL11 secretion could be stimulated from equine tracheal epithelial cells in response to IL-4. The newly generated mAbs for equine CCL chemokines facilitate the quantitative analysis of intracellular chemokine production by flow cytometry and soluble chemokines by ELISA. The CCL mAbs are valuable tools to improve the evaluation of innate immune responses in horses.