Using global remote camera data of a solitary species complex to evaluate the drivers of group formation.

The social system of animals involves a complex interplay between physiology, natural history, and the environment. Long relied upon discrete categorizations of "social" and "solitary" inhibit our capacity to understand species and their interactions with the world around them. Here, we use a globally distributed camera trapping dataset to test the drivers of aggregating into groups in a species complex (martens and relatives, family Mustelidae, Order Carnivora) assumed to be obligately solitary. We use a simple quantification, the probability of being detected in a group, that was applied across our globally derived camera trap dataset. Using a series of binomial generalized mixed-effects models applied to a dataset of 16,483 independent detections across 17 countries on four continents we test explicit hypotheses about potential drivers of group formation. We observe a wide range of probabilities of being detected in groups within the solitary model system, with the probability of aggregating in groups varying by more than an order of magnitude. We demonstrate that a species' context-dependent proclivity toward aggregating in groups is underpinned by a range of resource-related factors, primarily the distribution of resources, with increasing patchiness of resources facilitating group formation, as well as interactions between environmental conditions (resource constancy/winter severity) and physiology (energy storage capabilities). The wide variation in propensities to aggregate with conspecifics observed here highlights how continued failure to recognize complexities in the social behaviors of apparently solitary species limits our understanding not only of the individual species but also the causes and consequences of group formation.

Public perceptions and attitudes toward urban wildlife encounters - A decade of change.

Europe is currently undergoing dynamic land use changes causing the expansion of urban habitat, which is driving wildlife species to colonise conurbations, resulting in an increased likelihood of human-wildlife conflict (HWC). Understanding people's attitudes toward wildlife is essential to manage these conflicts. This study assessed people's attitudes toward urban wildlife, the types of conflicts that existed, preferences for managing conflict situations, and determined any changes in perceptions of urban wildlife over a decade. A questionnaire survey of residents of Krakow, the second-largest city in Poland, was conducted in 2010 (n = 721) and repeated in 2020 (n = 887). We found that encounters with certain urban wildlife such as wild boars, red squirrels, roe deer, brown hares, and red foxes had increased significantly in 2020 compared to 2010. Respondents reported that wild boar and beavers did not show fear when encountering humans. Stone martens were considered the most nuisance wildlife species in 2010, while in 2020 wild boar were the most conflictual wildlife species. There were additional reports of conflicts with roe deer and red foxes. The most frequent HWC responses were personal anxiety, intrusion into property and destruction of crops, which increased significantly over the decade, independent of respondents' gender. Respondents preferred nonlethal methods to mitigate conflicts. The study provides valuable information and knowledge on changes in people's attitudes toward urban wildlife that can help with wildlife management in urban areas. Incorporating perception and attitude data from the public, along with a multi-stakeholder approach that includes wildlife professionals, in the planning and design of future urban environments is critical to minimise HWC.

Animal-vehicle collisions during the COVID-19 lockdown in early 2020 in the Krakow metropolitan region, Poland.

The interrelations between human activity and animal populations are of increasing interest due to the emergence of the novel COVID-19 and the consequent pandemic across the world. Anthropogenic impacts of the pandemic on animals in urban-suburban environments are largely unknown. In this study, the temporal and spatial patterns of urban animal response to the COVID-19 lockdown were assessed using animal-vehicle collisions (AVC) data. We collected AVC data over two 6-month periods in 2019 and 2020 (January to June) from the largest metropolis in southern Poland, which included lockdown months. Furthermore, we used traffic data to understand the impact of lockdown on AVC in the urban area. Our analysis of 1063 AVC incidents revealed that COVID-19 related lockdown decreased AVC rates in suburban areas. However, in the urban area, even though traffic volume had significantly reduced, AVC did not decrease significantly, suggesting that lockdown did not influence the collision rates in the urban area. Our results suggest that there is a need to focus on understanding the effects of changes in traffic volume on both human behaviour and wildlife space use on the resulting impacts on AVC in the urban area.

Human-Wildlife Conflicts in Krakow City, Southern Poland.

Efforts to reduce human-wildlife-conflict are integral to wildlife management and conservation in urban habitats. In our study, we identified the HWC situations in urban areas of Krakow city, based on animal-vehicle collisions, intrusion to property, and damages. Hot spot analysis and Moran's Index were used to identify the location of maximum potential conflict. We analysed 2512 incidents in which animals (of which 85% included mammals and 15% birds) were involved in conflict situations between 2007 and 2013. A significant seasonal variation was observed among the animals. We also identified roe deer (50.23%), red fox (22.80%) and wild boar (11.40%), as the three prominent conflicted animals. Getis-Ord Gi* analysis was used to identify spatial clusters of conflict. A significant spatial association was found in the location of clusters of hot spots in specific land-use based on Moran's Index. Hot spots of roe deer and wild boar were high in grasslands and in forest and for red fox in built-up area. The results underscore the notion that conservation and wildlife management efforts must take into account differences in the seasonality of HWC among species. This information can be used to inform mitigation strategies.

The Prevalence of Endoparasites of Free Ranging Cats (Felis catus) from Urban Habitats in Southern Poland.

Growing urbanization leads to an increased risk of parasite spread in densely inhabited areas. Free-ranging cats can be locally numerous and come into frequent contact with both wildlife and humans. Cats are thus expected to contribute to parasitic disease transmission. In our study, we investigated the prevalence of endoparasites in free ranging cats in urban areas of Kraków city, based on necropsy of road-killed cats in relation to sex and diet of cat, season and habitat type. We found that 62% of 81 cats were infected with endoparasites with Toxocara cati being the most prevalent. In total, we identified seven parasite species. The number of parasite species was higher in suburban habitats and aside from Eucoleus aerophilus the prevalence of all parasites was higher in cats from suburban areas than in the individuals living in the city urban core. The prey of examined cats included mostly rodents, followed by soricomorphs and birds, which can all serve as paratenic hosts. Based on our results, we suggest that cats in urban areas should be considered as a serious potential zoonotic threat. Implementation of proper veterinary control and wider education on the topic is recommended.

Concentrations of cadmium and lead, but not zinc, are higher in red fox tissues than in rodents-pollution gradient study in the Malopolska province (Poland).

The main purpose of our research was to assess the chronic exposure of red foxes to Cd, Pb and Zn. We have determined concentrations of these metals in the kidney, liver and muscle of 36 red foxes hunted between December 2002 and March 2003 in differently polluted areas in southern Poland. Tissue concentrations of Pb and Cd in the red foxes significantly co-varied with concentrations of these elements in the soil, and differed between the tissues. We compared concentrations of Pb, Cd, and Zn in red foxes with two rodent species, Apodemus flavicollis and Myodes glareolus, trapped simultaneously in the same area. Concentrations of Pb and Cd appeared significantly higher in the red foxes than in the rodents, but the slopes of the relationship between metal concentrations in tissues and in soil were similar in all species. This indicates that extrapolation from results of monitoring studies conducted on rodents to mammalian carnivores is possible but requires applying an extrapolation factor.

Zatorska goose - a subject of parasitological research.

The aim of the study was to determine the level of gastrointestinal parasites in a native breed of geese - Zatorska goose - based on coproscopic testing. Faecal samples were collected from 90 young geese in three age groups (5, 7 and 9 weeks old) in 2014. The geese were kept indoors on deep litter and pastured from spring to autumn. The area of the pastures around the buildings where the geese grazed was about 1 hectare, divided into quarters for different age groups. Before grazing, the birds were dewormed with fenbendazole (Fenbenat powder 4%, Naturan). As additional treatment for coccidiosis, coccidiostats were added to the feed. The study was conducted using the McMaster quantitative method with centrifugation (flotation liquid: NaCl and glucose). The birds were shown to be infected with coccidia and nematodes. The prevalence of Eimeria sp. infection (mean 40%) and the number of oocysts per gram of faeces (reaching 5,300 OPG) were highest in the youngest age group of geese. The level of Amidostomum anseris infection was similar in the three age groups, with prevalence from 40% to 50% (nematode egg output ranged from 50 to 350 eggs per gram of faeces, EPG). Capillaria anatis was observed only in 5- and 7-week-old geese.

The Alice - "Follow the White Rabbit" - parasites of farm rabbits based on coproscopy.

The aim of the study, conducted in the years 2011-2013, was to determine the level of gastrointestinal parasites infection in New Zealand White rabbits, kept at the Experimental Station of the University of Agriculture in Krakow. The study showed rabbits protozoan infection with the genus Eimeria, belonging - based on the sporulation method - to the following species: E. magna, E. media, E. perforans, E. stiedae and E. irresidua. The highest prevalence of infection, as well as the intensity of oocysts output (OPG - oocysts per gram of faeces), was noted for E. magna and E. media - respectively 31.4 % (19477.3 OPG), and 40.0 % (14256.07 OPG). The infection of rabbits with Eimeria spp. differed significantly between years. With regard to oocysts output, the level of infection was strongly connected with the age of rabbits, being higher in young animals. However, the range of infection was highest among adults. Among nematodes, Passalurus ambiguus pinworm was regularly found (prevalence reached 21.9%), other species - Trichuris leporis, and Graphidium strigosum were rarely noted. The overall infection with nematodes did not differ between years. Similarly, as in the case of Eimeria older individuals were more often infected by nematodes. We observed some trends in parasite oocysts/eggs output; the protozoan oocysts were recorded more often in faecal samples collected in the evenings, whereas the nematodes eggs occurred frequently in the mornings. This situation may be related to the phenomenon of coprophagy occurring in the mammals of Lagomorpha order. The results of the study indicate that especially coccidiosis constitute permanently throughout the years an important problem in the rabbitry examined.

Occurrence of internal parasites in stone martens (Martes foina) from Cracow and suburbs.

The pine marten Martes martes and the stone marten Martes foina are the only representatives of the genus Martes in Poland. During the last few decades, an intensive synurbisation of stone martens has been recorded. The aim of the study was to assess the level of infection by internal parasites of Martes foina in the Cracow urban area. Eleven necropsies were performed of stone martens killed during animal-vehicle collisions. Additionally, coprological examination of 129 stone marten scats was included. For further analysis, two standard methods, i.e. flotation and decantation, were used. The intensity of infection by parasites was low. Taenia martis was found to be present in one marten individual by necropsy, while Taeniidae helminths and two genera of nematodes, Capillaria and Toxocara, were identified during coprodiagnosis. The diet analysis of stone marten scats revealed a high proportion of two food categories. Percentage frequency of occurrence for plant material and anthropogenic was calculated as 42.3% and 15.4%, respectively. This type of food composition might suggest lower infection by internal parasites in particular species, especially with an indirect life cycle.