Induction of immune responses and safety profiles in rhesus macaques immunized with a DNA vaccine expressing human prostate specific antigen.

Prostate specific antigen (PSA) is a widely used marker for prostate cancer, which is secreted by normal prostate cells at low levels, but is produced more substantially by cancer cells. We have previously reported on the use of a DNA vaccine construct that encodes for human PSA gene to elicit host immune responses against cells producing PSA. DNA immunization strategy delivers DNA constructs encoding for a specific immunogen into the host, who becomes the in vivo protein source for the production of antigen. This antigen then is the focus of the resulting immune response. In this study, we examine the induction of immune responses and safety profiles in rhesus macaques immunized with DNA-based PSA vaccine. We observed induction of PSA-specific humoral response as well as positive PSA-specific lymphoproliferative (LPA) response in the vaccinated macaques. We also observed that the stimulated T cells from the PSA-immunized rhesus macaques produced higher levels of Th1 type cytokine IFN-gamma than the control vector immunized animals. On the other hand, DNA immunization did not result in any adverse effects in the immunized macaques, as indicated by complete blood counts, leukocyte differentials and hepatic and renal chemistries. The macaques appeared healthy, without any physical signs of toxicity throughout the observation period. In addition, we did not observe any adverse effect on the vaccination site. The apparent safety and immunogenecity of DNA immunization in this study suggest that further evaluation of this vaccination strategy is warranted.

Protection from immunodeficiency virus challenges in rhesus macaques by multicomponent DNA immunization.

Multicomponent DNA vaccines were used to elicit immune responses, which can impact viral challenge in three separate rhesus macaque models. Eight rhesus macaques were immunized with DNA vaccines for HIV env/rev and SIV gag/pol and were challenged intravenously with 10 animal infective doses (AID(50)) of cell-free SHIV IIIB. Three of eight immunized rhesus macaques were protected, exhibiting no detectable virus. Animals protected from nonpathogenic SHIVIIIB challenge were rested for extended periods of time and were rechallenged first with pathogenic SIV(mac239) and subsequently with pathogenic SHIV89.6P viruses. Following the pathogenic challenges, all three vaccinated animals were negative for viral coculture and antigenemia and were negative by PCR. In contrast, the control animals exhibited antigenemia by 2 weeks postchallenge and exhibited greater than 10 logs of virus/10(6) cells in limiting dilution coculture. The control animals exhibited CD4 cell loss and developed SIV-related wasting with high viral burden and subsequently failed to thrive. Vaccinated animals remained virus-negative and were protected from the viral load, CD4 loss, disease, and death. We observed strong Th1-type cellular immune responses in the protected macaques throughout the study, suggesting their important roles in protection. These studies support the finding that multicomponent DNA vaccines can directly impact viral replication and disease in a highly pathogenic challenge system, thus potentially broadening our strategies against HIV.

Effective induction of simian immunodeficiency virus-specific systemic and mucosal immune responses in primates by vaccination with proviral DNA producing intact but noninfectious virions.

We report a pilot evaluation of a DNA vaccine producing genetically inactivated simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) particles in primates, with a focus on eliciting mucosal immunity. Our results demonstrate that DNA vaccines can be used to stimulate strong virus-specific mucosal immune responses in primates. The levels of immunoglobulin A (IgA) detected in rectal secretions of macaques that received the DNA vaccine intradermally and at the rectal mucosa were the most striking of all measured immune responses and were higher than usually achieved through natural infection. However, cytotoxic T lymphocyte responses were generally low and sporadically present in different animals. Upon rectal challenge with cloned SIVmac239, resistance to infection was observed, but some animals with high SIV-specific IgA levels in rectal secretions became infected. Our results suggest that high levels of IgA alone are not sufficient to prevent the establishment of chronic infection, although mucosal IgA responses may have a role in reducing the infectivity of the initial viral inoculum.

Effect of a cellulose acetate phthalate topical cream on vaginal transmission of simian immunodeficiency virus in rhesus monkeys.

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection continues to spread in developing countries, mostly through heterosexual transmission. The development of a safe and cost-effective topical microbicide, effective against a range of STDs including HIV-1, would greatly impact the ongoing epidemic. When formulated in a vehicle, a micronized form of cellulose acetate phthalate (CAP), which is an inactive pharmaceutical excipient, has been shown to inactivate HIV-1, herpes simplex virus types 1 and 2, cytomegalovirus, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Trichomonas vaginalis, Haemophilus ducreyi, and Chlamydia trachomatis in vitro. Formulated CAP was also shown to be effective against herpes simplex virus type 2 in vivo. Here we show that a formulation of CAP protected four of six rhesus monkeys from vaginal infection with simian immunodeficiency virus. Thus, CAP may be a candidate for use as a topical microbicide for preventing HIV-1 infection in humans.

Simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) gag DNA-vaccinated rhesus monkeys develop secondary cytotoxic T-lymphocyte responses and control viral replication after pathogenic SIV infection.

The potential contribution of a plasmid DNA construct to vaccine-elicited protective immunity was explored in the simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV)/macaque model of AIDS. Making use of soluble major histocompatibility class I/peptide tetramers and peptide-specific killing assays to monitor CD8(+) T-lymphocyte responses to a dominant SIV Gag epitope in genetically selected rhesus monkeys, a codon-optimized SIV gag DNA vaccine construct was shown to elicit a high-frequency SIV-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocyte (CTL) response. This CTL response was demonstrable in both peripheral blood and lymph node lymphocytes. Following an intravenous challenge with the highly pathogenic viral isolate SIVsm E660, these vaccinated monkeys developed a secondary CTL response that arose with more rapid kinetics and reached a higher frequency than did the postchallenge CTL response in control plasmid-vaccinated monkeys. While peak plasma SIV RNA levels were comparable in the experimentally and control-vaccinated monkeys during the period of primary infection, the gag plasmid DNA-vaccinated monkeys demonstrated better containment of viral replication by 50 days following SIV challenge. These findings indicate that a plasmid DNA vaccine can elicit SIV-specific CTL responses in rhesus monkeys, and this vaccine-elicited immunity can facilitate the generation of secondary CTL responses and control of viral replication following a pathogenic SIV challenge. These observations suggest that plasmid DNA may prove a useful component of a human immunodeficiency virus type 1 vaccine.

Modulation of antigen-specific humoral responses in rhesus macaques by using cytokine cDNAs as DNA vaccine adjuvants.

An important limitation of DNA immunization in nonhuman primates is the difficulty in generating high levels of antigen-specific antibody responses; strategies to enhance the level of immune responses to DNA immunization may be important in the further development of this vaccine strategy for humans. We approached this issue by testing the ability of molecular adjuvants to enhance the levels of immune responses generated by multicomponent DNA vaccines in rhesus macaques. Rhesus macaques were coimmunized intramuscularly with expression plasmids bearing genes encoding Th1 (interleukin 2 [IL-2] and gamma interferon)- or Th2 (IL-4)-type cytokines and DNA vaccine constructs encoding human immunodeficiency virus Env and Rev and simian immunodeficiency virus Gag and Pol proteins. We observed that the cytokine gene adjuvants (especially IL-2 and IL-4) significantly enhanced antigen-specific humoral immune responses in the rhesus macaque model. These results support the assumption that antigen-specific responses can be engineered to a higher and presumably more desirable level in rhesus macaques by genetic adjuvants.

Antigen-specific humoral and cellular immune responses can be modulated in rhesus macaques through the use of IFN-gamma, IL-12, or IL-18 gene adjuvants.

DNA or nucleic acid immunization has been shown to induce both antigen-specific cellular and humoral immune responses in vivo. Moreover, immune responses induced by DNA immunization can be enhanced and modulated by the use of molecular adjuvants. To engineer the immune response in vivo towards more T-helper (Th)1-type cellular responses, we investigated the co-delivery of inteferon (IFN)-gamma, interleukin (IL)-12, and IL-18 genes along with DNA vaccine constructs. We observed that both antigen-specific humoral and cellular immune responses can be modulated through the use of cytokine adjuvants in mice. Most of this work has been performed in rodent models. There has been little confirmation of this technology in primates. We also evaluated the immunomodulatory effects of this approach in rhesus macaques, since non-human primates represent the most relevant animal models for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) vaccine studies. As in the murine studies, we also observed that each Th1 cytokine adjuvant distinctively regulated the level of immune responses generated. Co-immunization of IFN-gamma and IL-18 in macaques enhanced the level of antigen-specific antibody responses. Similarly, co-delivery of IL-12 and IL-18 also enhanced the level of antigen-specific Th proliferative responses. These results extend this adjuvant strategy in a more relevant primate model and support the potential utility of these molecular adjuvants in DNA vaccine regimens.

Characterization of primary isolate-like variants of simian-human immunodeficiency virus.

Several different strains of simian-human immunodeficiency virus (SHIV) that contain the envelope glycoproteins of either T-cell-line-adapted (TCLA) strains or primary isolates of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) are now available. One of the advantages of these chimeric viruses is their application to studies of HIV-1-specific neutralizing antibodies in preclinical AIDS vaccine studies in nonhuman primates. In this regard, an important consideration is the spectrum of antigenic properties exhibited by the different envelope glycoproteins used for SHIV construction. The antigenic properties of six SHIV variants were characterized here in neutralization assays with recombinant soluble CD4 (rsCD4), monoclonal antibodies, and serum samples from SHIV-infected macaques and HIV-1-infected individuals. Neutralization of SHIV variants HXBc2, KU2, 89.6, and 89.6P by autologous and heterologous sera from SHIV-infected macaques was restricted to an extent that these viruses may be considered heterologous to one another in their major neutralization determinants. Little or no variation was seen in the neutralization determinants on SHIV variants 89.6P, 89.6PD, and SHIV-KB9. Neutralization of SHIV HXBc2 by sera from HXBc2-infected macaques could be blocked with autologous V3-loop peptide; this was less true in the case of SHIV 89.6 and sera from SHIV 89.6-infected macaques. The poorly immunogenic but highly conserved epitope for monoclonal antibody IgG1b12 was a target for neutralization on SHIV variants HXBc2, KU2, and 89.6 but not on 89.6P and KB9. The 2G12 epitope was a target for neutralization on all five SHIV variants. SHIV variants KU2, 89.6, 89.6P, 89.6PD, and KB9 exhibited antigenic properties characteristic of primary isolates by being relatively insensitive to neutralization in peripheral blood mononuclear cells with serum samples from HIV-1-infected individuals and 12-fold to 38-fold less sensitive to inhibition with recombinant soluble CD4 than TCLA strains of HIV-1. The utility of nonhuman primate models in AIDS vaccine development is strengthened by the availability of SHIV variants that are heterologous in their neutralization determinants and exhibit antigenic properties shared with primary isolates.

Protection by live, attenuated simian immunodeficiency virus against heterologous challenge.

We examined the ability of a live, attenuated deletion mutant of simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), SIVmac239Delta3, which is missing nef and vpr genes, to protect against challenge by heterologous strains SHIV89.6p and SIVsmE660. SHIV89.6p is a pathogenic, recombinant SIV in which the envelope gene has been replaced by a human immunodeficiency virus type 1 envelope gene; other structural genes of SHIV89.6p are derived from SIVmac239. SIVsmE660 is an uncloned, pathogenic, independent isolate from the same primate lentivirus subgrouping as SIVmac but with natural sequence variation in all structural genes. The challenge with SHIV89.6p was performed by the intravenous route 37 months after the time of vaccination. By the criteria of CD4(+) cell counts and disease, strong protection against the SHIV89.6p challenge was observed in four of four vaccinated monkeys despite the complete mismatch of env sequences. However, SHIV89.6p infection was established in all four previously vaccinated monkeys and three of the four developed fluctuating viral loads between 300 and 10,000 RNA copy equivalents per ml of plasma 30 to 72 weeks postchallenge. When other vaccinated monkeys were challenged with SIVsmE660 at 28 months after the time of vaccination, SIV loads were lower than those observed in unvaccinated controls but the level of protection was less than what was observed against SHIV89.6p in these experiments and considerably less than the level of protection against SIVmac251 observed in previous experiments. These results demonstrate a variable level of vaccine protection by live, attenuated SIVmac239Delta3 against heterologous virus challenge and suggest that even live, attenuated vaccine approaches for AIDS will face significant hurdles in providing protection against the natural variation present in field strains of virus. The results further suggest that factors other than anti-Env immune responses can be principally responsible for the vaccine protection by live, attenuated SIV.

Highly attenuated vaccine strains of simian immunodeficiency virus protect against vaginal challenge: inverse relationship of degree of protection with level of attenuation.

Three different deletion mutants of simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) that vary in their levels of attenuation were tested for the ability to protect against mucosal challenge with pathogenic SIV. Four female rhesus monkeys were vaccinated by intravenous inoculation with SIVmac239Delta3, four with SIVmac239Delta3X, and four with SIVmac239Delta4. These three vaccine strains exhibit increasing levels of attenuation: Delta3 < Delta3X

Neutralizing antibody-independent containment of immunodeficiency virus challenges by DNA priming and recombinant pox virus booster immunizations.

Eight different protocols were compared for their ability to raise protection against immunodeficiency virus challenges in rhesus macaques. The most promising containment of challenge infections was achieved by intradermal DNA priming followed by recombinant fowl pox virus booster immunizations. This containment did not require neutralizing antibody and was active for a series of challenges ending with a highly virulent virus with a primary isolate envelope heterologous to the immunizing strain.

Effect of 3-hydroxyphthaloyl-beta-lactoglobulin on vaginal transmission of simian immunodeficiency virus in rhesus monkeys.

Heterosexual transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) is the major cause of the ongoing AIDS epidemic. Application of chemical barrier methods is expected to contribute to the worldwide control of this epidemic. Bovine beta-lactoglobulin modified by 3-hydroxyphthalic anhydride (3-hydroxyphthalovyl-beta-lactoglobulin [3HP-beta-LG]) was shown to inhibit HIV-1, HIV-2, simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), herpes simplex virus type 1 and 2, and Chlamydia trachomatis infection in vitro. Here, we show that 3HP-beta-LG not formulated into any vehicle protected three of six rhesus monkeys against vaginal infection by SIV. Incorporation of the compound into an appropriate vehicle is expected to increase the degree of protection. 3HP-beta-LG may be effective as a vaginal inhibitor of HIV-1 infection in humans.

Neutralizing antibodies in sera from macaques immunized with attenuated simian immunodeficiency virus.

Infection with attenuated simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) in rhesus macaques has been shown to raise antibodies capable of neutralizing an animal challenge stock of primary SIVmac251 in CEMx174 cells that correlate with resistance to infection after experimental challenge with this virulent virus (M. S. Wyand, K. H. Manson, M. Garcia-Moll, D. C. Montefiori, and R. C. Desrosiers, J. Virol. 70:3724-3733, 1996). Here we show that these neutralizing antibodies are not detected in human and rhesus peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). In addition, neutralization of primary SIVmac251 in human and rhesus PBMC was rarely detected with plasma samples from a similar group of animals that had been infected either with SIVmac239Deltanef for 1.5 years or with SIVmac239Delta3 for 3.2 years, although low-level neutralization was detected in CEMx174 cells. Potent neutralization was detected in CEMx174 cells when the latter plasma samples were assessed with laboratory-adapted SIVmac251. In contrast to primary SIVmac251, laboratory-adapted SIVmac251 did not replicate in human and rhesus PBMC despite its ability to utilize CCR5, Bonzo/STRL33, and BOB/gpr15 as coreceptors for virus entry. These results illustrate the importance of virus passage history and the choice of indicator cells for making assessments of neutralizing antibodies to lentiviruses such as SIV. They also demonstrate that primary SIVmac251 is less sensitive to neutralization in human and rhesus PBMC than it is in established cell lines. Results obtained in PBMC did not support a role for neutralizing antibodies as a mechanism of protection in animals immunized with attenuated SIV and challenged with primary SIVmac251.

Neutralizing antibodies in sera from macaques infected with chimeric simian-human immunodeficiency virus containing the envelope glycoproteins of either a laboratory-adapted variant or a primary isolate of human immunodeficiency virus type 1.

The magnitude and breadth of neutralizing antibodies raised in response to infection with chimeric simian-human immunodeficiency virus (SHIV) in rhesus macaques were evaluated. Infection with either SHIV-HXB2, SHIV-89.6, or SHIV-89.6PD raised high-titer neutralizing antibodies to the homologous SHIV (SHIV-89.6P in the case of SHIV-89.6PD-infected animals) and significant titers of neutralizing antibodies to human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) strains MN and SF-2. With few exceptions, however, titers of neutralizing antibodies to heterologous SHIV were low or undetectable. The antibodies occasionally neutralized heterologous primary isolates of HIV-1; these antibodies required >40 weeks of infection to reach detectable levels. Notable was the potent neutralization of the HIV-1 89.6 primary isolate by serum samples from SHIV-89.6-infected macaques. These results demonstrate that SHIV-HXB2, SHIV-89.6, and SHIV-89.6P possess highly divergent, strain-specific neutralization epitopes. The results also provide insights into the requirements for raising neutralizing antibodies to primary isolates of HIV-1.

Evolution of envelope-specific antibody responses in monkeys experimentally infected or immunized with simian immunodeficiency virus and its association with the development of protective immunity.

Previous studies of attenuated simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) vaccines in rhesus macaques have demonstrated the development of broad protection against experimental challenge, indicating the potential for the production of highly effective immune responses to SIV antigens. However, the development of this protective immune status was found to be critically dependent on the length of time postvaccination with the attenuated virus strain, suggesting a necessary maturation of immune responses. In this study, the evolution of SIV envelope-specific antibodies in monkeys experimentally infected with various attenuated strains of SIV was characterized by using a comprehensive panel of serological assays to assess the progression of antibodies in longitudinal serum samples that indicate the development of protective immunity. In parallel studies, we also used the same panel of antibody assays to characterize the properties of SIV envelope-specific antibodies elicited by inactivated whole-virus and envelope subunit vaccines previously reported to be ineffective in producing protective immunity. The results of these studies demonstrate that the evolution of protective immunity in monkeys inoculated with attenuated strains of SIV is associated with a complex and lengthy maturation of antibody responses over the first 6 to 8 months postinoculation, as reflected in progressive changes in antibody conformational dependence and avidity properties. The establishment of long-term protective immunity at this time in general parallels the absence of further detectable changes in antibody responses and a maintenance of relatively constant antibody titer, avidity, conformational dependence, and the presence of neutralizing antibody for at least 2 years postinoculation. In contrast to the mature antibody responses elicited by the attenuated SIV vaccines, the whole-virus and envelope subunit vaccines in general elicited only immature antibody responses characterized by poor reactivity with native envelope proteins, low avidity, low conformational dependence, and the absence of neutralization activity against the challenge strain. Thus, these studies establish for the first time an association between the effectiveness of experimental vaccines and the capacity of the vaccine to produce a mature antibody response to SIV envelope proteins and further indicate that a combination of several antibody parameters (including titer, avidity, conformational dependence, and virus neutralization) are superior to any single antibody parameter as prognostic indicators to evaluate candidate AIDS vaccines.

SIV DNA vaccine trial in macaques: post-challenge necropsy in vaccine and control groups.

In this study we describe the histopathologic findings from nine macaques in a simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) DNA vaccine trial evaluating the ability of a 5-plasmid DNA vaccine to protect against an uncloned SIVmac251 challenge (Lu et al., J. Virol. 1996, 70, 3978-3991). Three vaccinated and one control macaque developed disease and were euthanized in the first year following challenge. The other four vaccinated and one control macaque remained clinically normal and were euthanized at the end of the trial (60 weeks post-challenge). The necropsy data revealed that both diseased and clinically normal macaques had developed typical SIV-related lymphoid changes, inflammatory disorders and opportunistic infections. All animals had variable degrees of follicular and/or paracortical lymphoid hyperplasia suggesting immune activation. All but one vaccinated macaque and both control macaques had SIV-associated opportunistic infections. Within the small groups of animals, the ability to contain opportunistic infections was superior, and the overall lymphoid changes less severe, in the macaques that had received vaccine DNAs by three routes of inoculation (intravenous, intramuscular and gene gun) than in those that had received control DNAs or vaccine DNAs by gene gun only. In the future it will be important to further test how the route and method of DNA inoculation impact the efficacy of immunodeficiency virus vaccines.

Resistance of neonatal monkeys to live attenuated vaccine strains of simian immunodeficiency virus.

A major safety concern of using live-attenuated vaccine strategies against AIDS is the potential exposure of neonates or fetuses to vaccine virus from the mother. Here we report that high viral loads and disease were observed in only 2 of 18 neonatal monkeys infected with gene-deleted vaccine strains of simian immunodeficiency virus. Pathogenicity was restricted to neonates born to unvaccinated mothers, that is, lacking maternal immunity, and that received extremely high doses of vaccine virus orally. No in utero transmission of vaccine virus was observed in four neonates born to mothers vaccinated during the second trimester. Our results suggest that the live attenuated vaccine approach should remain a viable option for preventing HIV infection and disease in high-risk human populations.

Vaccine protection by a triple deletion mutant of simian immunodeficiency virus.

Twelve rhesus monkeys were vaccinated with SIVmac316 delta nef (lacking nef sequences), and 12 were vaccinated with SIVmac239 delta3 (lacking nef, vpr, and upstream sequences in U3). SIVmac316 and SIVmac239 differ by only eight amino acids in the envelope; these changes render SIVmac316 highly competent for replication in macrophages. Seventeen of the animals developed persistent infections with the vaccine viruses. Seven of the 24 vaccinated animals, however, developed infections that were apparently transient in nature. Six of these seven yielded virus from peripheral blood when tested at weeks 2 and/or 3, three of the seven had transient antibody responses, but none of the seven had persisting antibody responses. The 24 monkeys were challenged in groups of four with 10 rhesus monkey infectious doses of wild-type, pathogenic SIVmac251 at weeks 8, 20, and 79 following receipt of vaccine. None of the seven with apparently transient infections with vaccine virus were protected upon subsequent challenge. Analysis of cell-associated viral loads, CD4+ cell counts, and viral gene sequences present in peripheral blood in the remainder of the monkeys following challenge allowed a number of conclusions. (i) There was a trend toward increased protection with length of time of vaccination. (ii) Solid vaccine protection was achieved by 79 weeks with the highly attenuated SIV239 delta3. (iii) Solid long-term protection was achieved in at least two animals in the absence of complete sterilizing immunity. (iv) Genetic backbone appeared to influence protective capacity; animals vaccinated with SIV239 delta3 were better protected than animals receiving SIV316 delta nef. This better protection correlated with increased levels of the replicating vaccine strain. (v) The titer of virus-neutralizing activity in serum on the day of challenge correlated with protection when measured against a primary stock of SIVmac251 but not when measured against a laboratory-passaged stock. The level of binding antibodies to whole virus by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay also correlated with protection.

Simian immunodeficiency virus DNA vaccine trial in macaques.

An experimental vaccine consisting of five DNA plasmids expressing different combinations and forms of simian immunodeficiency virus-macaque (SIVmac) proteins has been evaluated for the ability to protect against a highly pathogenic uncloned SIVmac251 challenge. One vaccine plasmid encoded nonreplicating SIVmac239 virus particles. The other four plasmids encoded secreted forms of the envelope glycoproteins of two T-cell-tropic relatives (SIVmac239 and SIVmac251) and one monocyte/macrophage-tropic relative (SIVmac316) of the uncloned challenge virus. Rhesus macaques were inoculated with DNA at 1 and 3, 11 and 13, and 21 and 23 weeks. Four macaques were inoculated intravenously, intramuscularly, and by gene gun inoculations. Three received only gene gun inoculations. Two control monkeys were inoculated with control plasmids by all three routes of inoculation. Neutralizing antibody titers of 1:216 to 1:768 were present in all of the vaccinated monkeys after the second cluster of inoculations. These titers were transient, were not boosted by the third cluster of inoculations, and had fallen to 1:24 to 1:72 by the time of challenge. Cytotoxic T-cell activity for Env was also raised in all of the vaccinated animals. The temporal appearance of cytotoxic T cells was similar to that of antibody. However, while antibody responses fell with time, cytotoxic T-cell responses persisted. The SIVmac251 challenge was administered intravenously at 2 weeks following the last immunization. The DNA immunizations did not prevent infection or protect against CD4+ cell loss. Long-term chronic levels of infection were similar in the vaccinated and control animals, with 1 in 10,000 to 1 in 100,000 peripheral blood cells carrying infectious virus. However, viral loads were reduced to the chronic level over a shorter period of time in the vaccinated groups (6 weeks) than in the control group (12 weeks). Thus, the DNA vaccine raised both neutralizing antibody and cytotoxic T-lymphocyte responses and provided some attenuation of the acute phase of infection, but it did not prevent the loss of CD4+ cells.

Utility of SHIV for testing HIV-1 vaccine candidates in macaques.

SUMMARY: Intravenous injection of SHIV (simian/human immunodeficiency virus, chimeric virus) into rhesus macaques resulted in a viremia in peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBL) and the generation of anti-HIV-1 (human immunodeficiency virus type 1) envelope immune responses. A challenge stock of a SHIV containing HIV-1 HXBc2 envelope glycoproteins was prepared from infected rhesus monkey peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). The minimum animal infectious dose of the SHIV stock was determined and used in a challenge experiment to test protection. The vaccination of two rhesus monkeys with whole inactivated HIV-1 plus polydicarboxylatophenoxy phosphazene (PCPP) as the adjuvant protected the animals from becoming infected by a SHIV challenge. This experiment demonstrated for the first time that monkeys immunized with HIV-1 antigens can be protected against an HIV-1 envelope-containing virus. As the challenge virus was prepared from monkey PBMC, human antigens were unlikely to be involved in the protection. Protection of rhesus monkeys from SHIV challenge may help,define protective immune responses stimulated by HIV-1 vaccine candidates.