Combination therapy is it in the future for successfully treating peripheral diabetic neuropathy?

In 2022, the Center for Disease Control and Prevention reported that 11.3% of the United States population, 37.3 million people, had diabetes and 38% of the population had prediabetes. A large American study conducted in 2021 and supported by many other studies, concluded that about 47% of diabetes patients have peripheral neuropathy and that diabetic neuropathy was present in 7.5% of patients at the time of diabetes diagnosis. In subjects deemed to be pre-diabetes and impaired glucose tolerance there was a wide range of prevalence estimates (interquartile range (IQR): 6%-34%), but most studies (72%) reported a prevalence of peripheral neuropathy ≥10%. There is no recognized treatment for diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN) other than good blood glucose control. Good glycemic control slows progression of DPN in patients with type 1 diabetes but for patients with type 2 diabetes it is less effective. With obesity and type 2 diabetes at epidemic levels the need of a treatment for DPN could not be more important. In this article I will first present background information on the "primary" mechanisms shown from pre-clinical studies to contribute to DPN and then discuss mono- and combination therapies that have demonstrated efficacy in animal studies and may have success when translated to human subjects. I like to compare the challenge of finding an effective treatment for DPN to the ongoing work being done to treat hypertension. Combination therapy is the recognized approach used to normalize blood pressure often requiring two, three or more drugs in addition to lifestyle modification to achieve the desired outcome. Hypertension, like DPN, is a progressive disease caused by multiple mechanisms. Therefore, it seems likely as well as logical that combination therapy combined with lifestyle adjustments will be required to successfully treat DPN.

Calpain inhibition protects against atrial fibrillation by mitigating diabetes-associated atrial fibrosis and calcium handling dysfunction in type 2 diabetes mice.

BACKGROUND: Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a major risk factor for atrial structural remodeling and atrial fibrillation (AF). Calpain activity is hypothesized to promote atrial remodeling and AF. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to investigate the role of calpain in diabetes-associated AF, fibrosis, and calcium handling dysfunction. METHODS: DM-associated AF was induced in wild-type (WT) mice and in mice overexpressing the calpain inhibitor calpastatin (CAST-OE) using high-fat diet feeding followed by low-dose streptozotocin injection (75 mg/kg). DM and AF outcomes were assessed by measuring blood glucose levels, fibrosis, and AF susceptibility during transesophageal atrial pacing. Intracellular Ca2+ transients, spontaneous Ca2+ release events, and intracellular T-tubule membranes were measured by in situ confocal microscopy. RESULTS: WT mice with DM had significant hyperglycemia, atrial fibrosis, and AF susceptibility with increased atrial myocyte calpain activity and Ca2+ handling dysfunction relative to control treated animals. CAST-OE mice with DM had a similar level of hyperglycemia as diabetic WT littermates but lacked significant atrial fibrosis and AF susceptibility. DM-induced atrial calpain activity and downregulation of the calpain substrate junctophilin-2 were prevented by CAST-OE. Atrial myocytes of diabetic CAST-OE mice exhibited improved T-tubule membrane organization, Ca2+ handling, and reduced spontaneous Ca2+ release events compared to littermate controls. CONCLUSION: This study confirmed that DM promotes calpain activation, atrial fibrosis, and AF in mice. CAST-OE effectively inhibits DM-induced calpain activation and reduces atrial remodeling and AF incidence through improved intracellular Ca2+ homeostasis. Our results support calpain inhibition as a potential therapy for preventing and treating AF in DM patients.

Rat Model of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Recapitulates Human Disease in the Anterior Segment of the Eye.

Changes in the anterior segment of the eye due to type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) are not well-characterized, in part due to the lack of a reliable animal model. This study evaluated changes in the anterior segment, including crystalline lens health, corneal endothelial cell density, aqueous humor metabolites, and ciliary body vasculature, in a rat model of T2DM compared with human eyes. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were fed a high-fat diet (45% fat) or normal diet, and rats fed the high-fat diet were injected with streptozotocin intraperitoneally to generate a model of T2DM. Cataract formation and corneal endothelial cell density were assessed using microscopic analysis. Diabetes-related rat aqueous humor alterations were assessed using metabolomics screening. Transmission electron microscopy was used to assess qualitative ultrastructural changes ciliary process microvessels at the site of aqueous formation in the eyes of diabetic rats and humans. Eyes from the diabetic rats demonstrated cataracts, lower corneal endothelial cell densities, altered aqueous metabolites, and ciliary body ultrastructural changes, including vascular endothelial cell activation, pericyte degeneration, perivascular edema, and basement membrane reduplication. These findings recapitulated diabetic changes in human eyes. These results support the use of this model for studying ocular manifestations of T2DM and support a hypothesis postulating blood-aqueous barrier breakdown and vascular leakage at the ciliary body as a mechanism for diabetic anterior segment pathology.

COMPARATIVE EFFECT OF A HIGH FAT WITH OR WITHOUT HIGH LEVELS OF SUCROSE DIETS ON PERIPHERAL NEUROPATHY IN C57BL/6J MICE.

Objective: Feeding mice a diet containing high fat and high sucrose has been promoted as a good model for type 2 diabetes. This study sought to determine the effect of feeding mice a high fat and high sucrose diet on neuropathy compared to mice fed only a high fat diet and mice fed a high diet and treated with streptozotocin. Methods: C57Bl/6J mice were divided into five groups and fed the following diets for 20 weeks: Normal (Control); Sucrose enriched (Control + Sucrose), High Fat (Diet-induced obesity (DIO)), High Fat and High Sucrose (DIO + sucrose) and High Fat diet/streptozotocin treated (Diabetic). The endpoints evaluated included motor and sensory nerve conduction velocity, thermal and mechanical sensitivity and innervation of sensory nerves in the cornea and skin. Results: Diabetic mice were hyperglycemic at the end of the study and along with DIO mice with or without Sucrose had impaired glucose utilization. DIO mice had slowed sensory nerve conduction velocity, mechanical allodynia and decreased innervation of the cornea and skin. DIO + Sucrose and to a greater extent diabetic mice were thermal hypoalgesic, had mechanical allodynia, reduced motor and sensory nerve conduction velocities and decrease innervation of the cornea and skin. Conclusions: Development of peripheral neuropathy was more severe in High Fat and High Sucrose fed mice compared to high fat fed mice but fasting hyperglycemia and impaired glucose utilization was similar for these two models. Peripheral neuropathy was most severe in diabetic mice.

Treatment for Diabetic Peripheral Neuropathy: What have we Learned from Animal Models?

INTRODUCTION: Animal models have been widely used to investigate the etiology and potential treatments for diabetic peripheral neuropathy. What we have learned from these studies and the extent to which this information has been adapted for the human condition will be the subject of this review article. METHODS: A comprehensive search of the PubMed database was performed, and relevant articles on the topic were included in this review. RESULTS: Extensive study of diabetic animal models has shown that the etiology of diabetic peripheral neuropathy is complex, with multiple mechanisms affecting neurons, Schwann cells, and the microvasculature, which contribute to the phenotypic nature of this most common complication of diabetes. Moreover, animal studies have demonstrated that the mechanisms related to peripheral neuropathy occurring in type 1 and type 2 diabetes are likely different, with hyperglycemia being the primary factor for neuropathology in type 1 diabetes, which contributes to a lesser extent in type 2 diabetes, whereas insulin resistance, hyperlipidemia, and other factors may have a greater role. Two of the earliest mechanisms described from animal studies as a cause for diabetic peripheral neuropathy were the activation of the aldose reductase pathway and increased non-enzymatic glycation. However, continuing research has identified numerous other potential factors that may contribute to diabetic peripheral neuropathy, including oxidative and inflammatory stress, dysregulation of protein kinase C and hexosamine pathways, and decreased neurotrophic support. In addition, recent studies have demonstrated that peripheral neuropathy-like symptoms are present in animal models, representing pre-diabetes in the absence of hyperglycemia. CONCLUSION: This complexity complicates the successful treatment of diabetic peripheral neuropathy, and results in the poor outcome of translating successful treatments from animal studies to human clinical trials.

Biology of Activating Transcription Factor 4 (ATF4) and Its Role in Skeletal Muscle Atrophy.

Activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4) is a multifunctional transcription regulatory protein in the basic leucine zipper superfamily. ATF4 can be expressed in most if not all mammalian cell types, and it can participate in a variety of cellular responses to specific environmental stresses, intracellular derangements, or growth factors. Because ATF4 is involved in a wide range of biological processes, its roles in human health and disease are not yet fully understood. Much of our current knowledge about ATF4 comes from investigations in cultured cell models, where ATF4 was originally characterized and where further investigations continue to provide new insights. ATF4 is also an increasingly prominent topic of in vivo investigations in fully differentiated mammalian cell types, where our current understanding of ATF4 is less complete. Here, we review some important high-level concepts and questions concerning the basic biology of ATF4. We then discuss current knowledge and emerging questions about the in vivo role of ATF4 in one fully differentiated cell type, mammalian skeletal muscle fibers.

Characterization of Mice Ubiquitously Overexpressing Human 15-Lipoxygenase-1: Effect of Diabetes on Peripheral Neuropathy and Treatment with Menhaden Oil.

To rigorously explore the role of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in the treatment of diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN), we have created a transgenic mouse utilizing a Cre-lox promoter to control overexpression of human 15-lipoxygenase-1 (15-LOX-1). In this study, we sought to determine the effect of treating type 2 diabetic wild-type mice and transgenic mice ubiquitously overexpressing 15-LOX-1 with menhaden oil on endpoints related to DPN. Wild-type and transgenic mice on a C57Bl/6J background were divided into three groups. Two of each of these groups were used to create a high-fat diet/streptozotocin model for type 2 diabetes. The remaining mice were control groups. Four weeks later, one set of diabetic mice from each group was treated with menhaden oil for twelve weeks and then evaluated using DPN-related endpoints. Studies were also performed using dorsal root ganglion neurons isolated from wild-type and transgenic mice. Wild-type and transgenic diabetic mice developed DPN as determined by slowing of nerve conduction velocity, decreased sensory nerve fibers in the skin and cornea, and impairment of thermal and mechanical sensitivity of the hindpaw compared to their respective control mice. Although not significant, there was a trend for the severity of these DPN-related deficits to be less in the diabetic transgenic mice compared to the diabetic wild-type mice. Treating diabetic wild-type and transgenic mice with menhaden oil improved the DPN-related endpoints with a trend for greater improvement or protection by menhaden oil observed in the diabetic transgenic mice. Treating dorsal root ganglion neurons with docosahexanoic acid but not eicosapentaenoic acid significantly increased neurite outgrowth with greater efficacy observed with neurons isolated from transgenic mice. Targeting pathways that will increase the production of the anti-inflammatory metabolites of omega-3 PUFA may be an efficacious approach to developing an effective treatment for DPN.

Effect of mitoquinone on liver metabolism and steatosis in obese and diabetic rats.

Previous work by ourselves and others showed that mitoquinone (mitoQ) reduced oxidative damage and prevented hepatic fat accumulation in mice made obese with high-fat (HF) feeding. Here we extended these studies to examine the effect of mitoQ on parameters affecting liver function in rats treated with HF to induce obesity and in rats treated with HF plus streptozotocin (STZ) to model a severe form of type 2 diabetes. In prior reported work, we found that mitoQ significantly improved glycemia based on glucose tolerance data in HF rats but not in the diabetic rats. Here we found only non-significant reductions in insulin and glucose measured in the fed state at sacrifice in the HF mice treated with mitoQ. Metabolomic data showed that mitoQ altered several hepatic metabolic pathways in HF-fed obese rats toward those observed in control normal chow-fed non-obese rats. However, mitoQ had little effect on pathways observed in the diabetic rats, wherein diabetes itself induced marked pathway aberrations. MitoQ did not alter respiration or membrane potential in isolated liver mitochondria. MitoQ reduced liver fat and liver hydroperoxide levels but did not improve liver function as marked by circulating levels of aspartate and alanine aminotransferase (ALT). In summary, our results for HF-fed rats are consistent with past findings in HF-fed mice indicating decreased liver lipid hydroperoxides (LPO) and improved glycemia. However, in contrast to the HF obese mice, mitoQ did not improve glycemia or reset perturbed metabolic pathways in the diabetic rats.

Interaction between magnesium and methylglyoxal in diabetic polyneuropathy and neuronal models.

OBJECTIVE: The lack of effective treatments against diabetic sensorimotor polyneuropathy demands the search for new strategies to combat or prevent the condition. Because reduced magnesium and increased methylglyoxal levels have been implicated in the development of both type 2 diabetes and neuropathic pain, we aimed to assess the putative interplay of both molecules with diabetic sensorimotor polyneuropathy. METHODS: In a cross-sectional study, serum magnesium and plasma methylglyoxal levels were measured in recently diagnosed type 2 diabetes patients with (n = 51) and without (n = 184) diabetic sensorimotor polyneuropathy from the German Diabetes Study baseline cohort. Peripheral nerve function was assessed using nerve conduction velocity and quantitative sensory testing. Human neuroblastoma cells (SH-SY5Y) and mouse dorsal root ganglia cells were used to characterize the neurotoxic effect of methylglyoxal and/or neuroprotective effect of magnesium. RESULTS: Here, we demonstrate that serum magnesium concentration was reduced in recently diagnosed type 2 diabetes patients with diabetic sensorimotor polyneuropathy and inversely associated with plasma methylglyoxal concentration. Magnesium, methylglyoxal, and, importantly, their interaction were strongly interrelated with methylglyoxal-dependent nerve dysfunction and were predictive of changes in nerve function. Magnesium supplementation prevented methylglyoxal neurotoxicity in differentiated SH-SY5Y neuron-like cells due to reduction of intracellular methylglyoxal formation, while supplementation with the divalent cations zinc and manganese had no effect on methylglyoxal neurotoxicity. Furthermore, the downregulation of mitochondrial activity in mouse dorsal root ganglia cells and consequently the enrichment of triosephosphates, the primary source of methylglyoxal, resulted in neurite degeneration, which was completely prevented through magnesium supplementation. CONCLUSIONS: These multifaceted findings reveal a novel putative pathophysiological pathway of hypomagnesemia-induced carbonyl stress leading to neuronal damage and merit further investigations not only for diabetic sensorimotor polyneuropathy but also other neurodegenerative diseases associated with magnesium deficiency and impaired energy metabolism.

Introducing Our New Chief Editor.

Journal of Diabetes Research is delighted to announce the installation of Dr. Mark Yorek as the new Chief Editor for the journal. In this Editorial, Dr. Yorek discusses his research background, his ideas for the journal's development, and his views on the direction of the field of diabetes.

Insulin Treatment Attenuates Small Nerve Fiber Damage in Rat Model of Type 2 Diabetes.

INTRODUCTION: Current clinical guidelines for management of diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN) emphasize good glycemic control. However, this has limited effect on prevention of DPN in type 2 diabetic (T2D) patients. This study investigates the effect of insulin treatment on development of DPN in a rat model of T2D to assess the underlying causes leading to DPN. METHODS: Twelve-week-old male Sprague-Dawley rats were allocated to a normal chow diet or a 45% kcal high-fat diet. After eight weeks, the high-fat fed animals received a mild dose of streptozotocin to induce hyperglycemia. Four weeks after diabetes induction, the diabetic animals were allocated into three treatment groups receiving either no insulin or insulin-releasing implants in a high or low dose. During the 12-week treatment period, blood glucose and body weight were monitored weekly, whereas Hargreaves' test was performed four, eight, and 12 weeks after treatment initiation. At study termination, several blood parameters, body composition, and neuropathy endpoints were assessed. RESULTS: Insulin treatment lowered blood glucose in a dose-dependent manner. In addition, both doses of insulin lowered lipids and increased body fat percentage. High-dose insulin treatment attenuated small nerve fiber damage assessed by Hargreaves' test and intraepidermal nerve fiber density compared to untreated diabetes and low-dose insulin; however, neuropathy was not completely prevented by tight glycemic control. Linear regression analysis revealed that glycemic status, circulating lipids, and sciatic nerve sorbitol level were all negatively associated with the small nerve fiber damage observed. CONCLUSION: In summary, our data suggest that high-dose insulin treatment attenuates small nerve fiber damage. Furthermore, data also indicate that both poor glycemic control and dyslipidemia are associated with disease progression. Consequently, this rat model of T2D seems to fit well with progression of DPN in humans and could be a relevant preclinical model to use in relation to research investigating treatment opportunities for DPN.

Progressive Loss of Corneal Nerve Fibers and Sensitivity in Rats Modeling Obesity and Type 2 Diabetes Is Reversible with Omega-3 Fatty Acid Intervention: Supporting Cornea Analyses as a Marker for Peripheral Neuropathy and Treatment.

PURPOSE: To determine whether cornea nerve fiber density and/or corneal function are valid markers for early detection and treatment of peripheral neuropathy in rats modeling prediabetes and type 2 diabetes. METHODS: High-fat feeding combined without or with low-dose streptozotocin was used to create rat models for prediabetes and type 2 diabetes that were longitudinally studied for loss of structure and function of sensory nerves in the cornea and skin as well as nerve conduction velocity and vascular reactivity of epineurial arterioles. There were three time points examined in each of the three conditions with 12 rats per group. The latest time point (24 weeks of high-fat diet with or without 16 weeks of hyperglycemia) was used to examine reversibility of neuro and vascular pathology following 16 weeks of treatment with menhaden oil, a natural source of long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. The number of rats in the intervention study ranged from 6 to 17. RESULTS: Our longitudinal study demonstrated that vascular and neural dysfunction associated with obesity or type 2 diabetes occur early and are progressive. Decrease in cornea nerve fiber length and function were valid markers of disease in both the pre-diabetic and diabetic rat models and were more sensitive than decrease in intraepidermal nerve fiber density of the skin and thermal nociception of the hindpaw. Late intervention with menhaden oil significantly reversed both vascular and peripheral nerve damage induced by chronic obesity or type 2 diabetes. CONCLUSION: These studies provide support for examination of corneal structure and function as an early marker of peripheral neuropathy in prediabetes and type 2 diabetes. Furthermore, we demonstrate that omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids derived from fish oil are an effective treatment for peripheral neuropathy that occurs with chronic obesity or type 2 diabetes.

Effect of mitoquinone (Mito-Q) on neuropathic endpoints in an obese and type 2 diabetic rat model.

This study sought to determine whether the addition of mitoquinone (Mito-Q) in the diet is an effective treatment for peripheral neuropathy in animal models of diet-induced obesity (pre-diabetes) and type 2 diabetes. Unlike other anti-oxidative stress compounds investigated as a treatment for peripheral neuropathy, Mito-Q specifically targets mitochondria. Although mito-Q has been shown to reduce oxidative stress generated by mitochondria there have been no studies performed of the effect of Mito-Q on peripheral neuropathy induced by diet-induced obesity or type 2 diabetes. Diet-induced obese (12 weeks after high fat diet) or type 2 diabetic rats (12 weeks of high fat diet and 4 weeks after the onset of hyperglycemia) were treated via the diet with Mito-Q (0.93 g/kg diet) for 12 weeks. Afterwards, glucose utilization, vascular reactivity of epineurial arterioles to acetylcholine and peripheral neuropathy related endpoints were examined. The addition of Mito-Q to the diets of obese and diabetic rats improved motor and/or sensory nerve conduction velocity, cornea and intraepidermal nerve fibre density, cornea sensitivity and thermal nociception. Surprisingly, treating obese and diabetic rats with Mito-Q did not improve glucose utilization or vascular reactivity by epineurial arterioles to acetylcholine. These studies imply that mitochondrial dysfunction contributes to peripheral neuropathy in animal models of pre-diabetes and late-stage type 2 diabetes. However, improvement in peripheral neuropathy following treatment with Mito-Q was not associated with improvement in glucose utilization or vascular reactivity of epineurial arterioles to acetylcholine.

Effect of Early and Late Interventions with Dietary Oils on Vascular and Neural Complications in a Type 2 Diabetic Rat Model.

AIMS: Determine the effect of dietary oils enriched in different mono- or polyunsaturated fatty acids, i.e., olive oil (18 : 1, oleic acid), safflower oil (18 : 2 n-6, linoleic acid), flaxseed oil (18 : 3 n-3, alpha linolenic acid), evening primrose oil (18 : 3 n-6, gamma linolenic acid), or menhaden oil (20:5/22 : 6 n-3 eicosapentaenoic/docosahexaenoic acids), on vascular and neural complications in high-fat-fed low-dose streptozotocin-treated Sprague-Dawley rats, an animal model for late-stage type 2 diabetes. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Rats were fed a high-fat diet (45% kcal as fat primarily derived from lard) for 8 weeks and then treated with a low dose of streptozotocin (30 mg/kg) in order to induce hyperglycemia. After an additional 8 (early intervention) or 20 (late intervention) weeks, the different groups of rats were fed diets with 1/2 of the kcal of fat derived from lard replaced by the different dietary oils. In addition, a control group fed a standard diet (4.25% kcal as fat) and a diabetic group maintained on the high-fat diet were maintained. The treatment period was approximately 16 weeks. The endpoints evaluated included vascular reactivity of epineurial arterioles, motor and sensory nerve conduction velocity, thermal and corneal sensitivity, and innervation of sensory nerves in the cornea and skin. RESULTS: Our findings show that menhaden and flaxseed oil provided the greatest benefit for correcting peripheral nerve damage caused by diabetes, whereas enriching the high-fat diet with menhaden oil provided the most benefit to acetylcholine-mediated vascular relaxation of epineurial arterioles of the sciatic nerve. Enriching the diets with fatty acids derived from the other oils provided none to partial improvements. CONCLUSIONS: These studies imply that long-chain n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids could be an effective treatment for diabetic peripheral neuropathy with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids derived from fish oil being the most effective.

The Potential Role of Fatty Acids in Treating Diabetic Neuropathy.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: This review will summarize recent findings of the effect of supplemental fatty acids, with an emphasis on omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, as a treatment for diabetic peripheral neuropathy. RECENT FINDINGS: Pre-clinical studies have provided evidence that treating diabetic rodents with δ linolenic acid (omega-6 18:3) and to a greater extent with eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids (omega-3 20:5 and 22:6, respectively) improve and even reverse vascular and neural deficits. Additional studies have shown resolvins, metabolites of eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids, can induce neurite outgrowth in neuron cultures and that treating type 1 or type 2 diabetic mice with resolvin D1 or E1 provides benefit for peripheral neuropathy similar to fish oil. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids derived from fish oil and their derivatives have anti-inflammatory properties and could provide benefit for diabetic peripheral neuropathy. However, clinical trials are needed to determine whether this statement is true.

Dietary fats modify vascular fat composition, eNOS localization within lipid rafts and vascular function in obesity.

We tested whether dietary fatty acids alter membrane composition shifting localization of signaling pathways within caveolae to determine their role in vascular function. Wild type (WT) and caveolin-1-deficient mice (cav-1 KO), required for vascular caveolae formation, were fed low fat (LF), high saturated fat (HF, 60% kcal from lard), or high-fat diet with 50:50 lard and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid-enriched menhaden oil (MO). HF and MO increased body weight and fat in WT but had less effect in cav-1 KO. MO increased unsaturated fatty acids and the unsaturation index of aorta from WT and cav-1 KO. In LF WT aorta, endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) was localized to cav-1-enriched low-density fractions which shifted to actin-enriched high-density fractions with acetylcholine (ACh). HF and MO shifted eNOS to high-density fractions in WT aorta which was not affected by ACh. In cav-1 KO aorta, eNOS was localized in low-density non-caveolar fractions but not shifted by ACh or diet. Inducible NOS and cyclooxygenase 1/2 were not localized in low-density fractions or affected by diet, ACh or genotype. ACh-induced dilation of gracilis arteries from HF WT was similar to dilation in LF but the NOS component was reduced. In WT and cav-1 KO, dilation to ACh was enhanced by MO through increased role for NOS and cyclooxygenase. We conclude that dietary fats affect vascular fatty acid composition and membrane localization of eNOS but the contribution of eNOS and cyclooxygenase in ACh-mediated vascular responses is independent of lipid rafts.

Effect of Dietary Content of Menhaden Oil with or without Salsalate on Neuropathic Endpoints in High-Fat-Fed/Low-Dose Streptozotocin-Treated Sprague Dawley Rats.

In this study, we wanted to extend our investigation of the efficacy of fish oil with or without salsalate on vascular and neural complications using a type 2 diabetic rat model. Four weeks after the onset of hyperglycemia, diabetic rats were treated via the diet with 3 different amounts of menhaden oil with or without salsalate for 12 weeks. Afterwards, vascular reactivity of epineurial arterioles and neuropathy-related endpoints were examined. The addition of salsalate to high-fat diets enriched with 10% or 25% kcal of menhaden oil protected vascular reactivity to acetylcholine and calcium gene-related peptide, motor and sensory nerve conduction velocity, thermal nociception, intraepidermal nerve fiber density, and cornea sensitivity to a greater extent than 10% or 25% menhaden oil alone. Vascular and neural function was maximally protected with diet containing 45% kcal as menhaden oil, and adding salsalate did not provide any additional benefit. Salsalate alone in the high-fat diet of diabetic rats provided minimal protection/improvement of vascular and neural dysfunction. These studies imply that dietary salsalate in combination with lower amounts of menhaden oil can provide greater benefit toward diabetes-induced vascular and neural impairment than menhaden oil alone.

Vascular and Neural Complications in Type 2 Diabetic Rats: Improvement by Sacubitril/Valsartan Greater Than Valsartan Alone.

Previously, we had shown that a vasopeptidase inhibitor drug containing ACE and neprilysin inhibitors was an effective treatment for diabetic vascular and neural complications. However, side effects prevented further development. This led to the development of sacubitril/valsartan, a drug containing angiotensin II receptor blocker and neprilysin inhibitor that we hypothesized would be an effective treatment for diabetic peripheral neuropathy. Using early and late intervention protocols (4 and 12 weeks posthyperglycemia, respectively), type 2 diabetic rats were treated with valsartan or sacubitril/valsartan for 12 weeks followed by an extensive evaluation of vascular and neural end points. The results demonstrated efficacy of sacubitril/valsartan in improving vascular and neural function was superior to valsartan alone. In the early intervention protocol, sacubitril/valsartan treatment was found to slow progression of these deficits and, with late intervention treatment, was found to stimulate restoration of vascular reactivity, motor and sensory nerve conduction velocities, and sensitivity/regeneration of sensory nerves of the skin and cornea in a rat model of type 2 diabetes. These preclinical studies suggest that sacubitril/valsartan may be an effective treatment for diabetic peripheral neuropathy, but additional studies will be needed to investigate these effects further.