The short-chain fatty acid receptors Gpr41/43 regulate bone mass by promoting adipogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells.

Bone is a dynamic tissue that is constantly remodeled throughout adult life. Recently, it has been shown that bone turnover decreases shortly after food consumption. This process has been linked to the fermentation of non-digestible food ingredients such as inulin by gut microbes, which results in the production of the short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) acetate, propionate and butyrate. SCFAs exert various metabolic functions, which in part can be explained by activation of G protein-coupled receptors (Gpr) 41 and 43. However, the potential relevance of a SCFA-Gpr41/43 signaling axis for bone metabolism has not been established. The aim of our study is to investigate the role of Gpr41/43 in bone metabolism and osteogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells. For this purpose, we analyzed the skeletal phenotype of wild type controls (WT) and Gpr41/43 double knockout (Gpr41/43 dKO) mice fed either a chow or an inulin-enriched diet. In addition, we isolated bone marrow derived mesenchymal stem cells from WT and Gpr41/43 dKO mice and differentiated them into osteoblasts in the absence or presence of acetate. MicroCT scanning of femoral bones of Gpr41/43 dKO mice revealed a significant increase of trabecular bone volume and trabecular compared to WT controls. Treatment of WT bone marrow-derived osteoblasts with acetate resulted in decreased mineralization and substantial downregulation of bone formation markers such as Phex, Ptgs2 and Col1a1. Notably, this effect was strongly attenuated in differentiated osteoblasts lacking Gpr41/43. Inversely, acetate supplementation resulted in higher levels of adipocyte marker genes including Pparg, Lpl and Adipoq in bone marrow-derived cells from WT mice, an effect blunted in differentiated cells isolated from Gpr41/43 dKO mice. Overall, these data indicate that acetate regulates bone architecture via SCFA-Gpr41/43 signaling by modulating the osteogenic versus adipogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells.

Inactivation of spermine synthase in mice causes osteopenia due to reduced osteoblast activity.

Spermine synthase, encoded by the SMS gene, is involved in polyamine metabolism, as it is required for the synthesis of spermine from its precursor molecule spermidine. Pathogenic variants of SMS are known to cause Snyder-Robinson syndrome (SRS), an X-linked recessive disorder causing various symptoms, including intellectual disability, muscular hypotonia, infertility, but also skeletal abnormalities, such as facial dysmorphisms and osteoporosis. Since the impact of a murine SMS deficiency has so far only been analyzed in Gy mice, where a large genomic deletion also includes the neighboring Phex gene, there is only limited knowledge about the potential role of SMS in bone cell regulation. In the present manuscript, we describe 2 patients carrying distinct SMS variants, both diagnosed with osteoporosis. Whereas the first patient displayed all characteristic hallmarks of SRS, the second patient was initially diagnosed, based on laboratory findings, as a case of adult-onset hypophosphatasia. To study the impact of SMS inactivation on bone remodeling, we took advantage of a newly developed mouse model carrying a pathogenic SMS variant (p.G56S). Compared to their wildtype littermates, 12-wk-old male SMSG56S/0 mice displayed reduced trabecular bone mass and cortical thickness, as assessed by µCT analysis of the femur. This phenotype was histologically confirmed by the analysis of spine and tibia sections, where we also observed a moderate enrichment of non-mineralized osteoid in SMSG56S/0 mice. Cellular and dynamic histomorphometry further identified a reduced bone formation rate as a main cause of the low bone mass phenotype. Likewise, primary bone marrow cells from SMSG56S/0 mice displayed reduced capacity to form a mineralized matrix ex vivo, thereby suggesting a cell-autonomous mechanism. Taken together, our data identify SMS as an enzyme with physiological relevance for osteoblast activity, thereby demonstrating an important role of polyamine metabolism in the control of bone remodeling.

Spermine synthase, encoded by the SMS gene, catalyzes the synthesis of spermine from its precursor molecule spermidine. Pathogenic variants of the SMS gene cause the Snyder­Robinson syndrome (SRS), which is characterized by various musculoskeletal and extraskeletal symptoms. This study presents case reports of 2 individuals with SMS variants and investigates the skeletal pathomechanism using a mouse model of SRS. The bone mass of these mice was decreased due to a reduced bone formation rate. Moreover, ex vivo cultured osteoblasts isolated from this mouse line showed a decrease in mineralization capacity. Our data demonstrate that spermine synthase is a key enzyme that is required to promote the activity of bone-forming osteoblasts.

Osteomodulin deficiency in mice causes a specific reduction of transversal cortical bone size.

Skeletal growth, modeling, and remodeling are regulated by various molecules, one of them being the recently identified osteoanabolic factor WNT1. We have previously reported that WNT1 transcriptionally activates the expression of Omd, encoding Osteomodulin (OMD), in a murine mesenchymal cell line, which potentially explained the skeletal fragility of mice with mutational WNT1 inactivation, since OMD has been shown to regulate type I collagen fibril formation in vitro. In this study we confirmed the strong induction of Omd expression in a genome-wide expression analysis of transfected cells, and we obtained further evidence for Omd being a direct target gene of WNT1. To assess the in vivo relevance of this regulation, we crossed Omd-deficient mice with a mouse line harboring an inducible, osteoblast-specific Wnt1 transgene. After induction of Wnt1 expression for 1 or 3 weeks, the osteoanabolic potency of WNT1 was not impaired despite the Omd deficiency. Since current knowledge regarding the in vivo physiological function of OMD is limited, we next focused on skeletal phenotyping of wild-type and Omd-deficient littermates, in the absence of a Wnt1 transgene. Here we did not observe an impact of Omd deficiency on trabecular bone parameters by histomorphometry and µCT either. Importantly, however, male and female Omd-deficient mice at the ages of 12 and 24 weeks displayed a slender bone phenotype with significantly smaller long bones in the transversal dimension, while the longitudinal bone growth remained unaffected. Although mechanical testing revealed no significant changes explained by impaired bone material properties, atomic force microscopy of the femoral bone surface of Omd-deficient mice revealed moderate changes at the nanostructural level, indicating altered regulation of collagen fibril formation and aggregation. Taken together, our data demonstrate that, although OMD is dispensable for the osteoanabolic effect of WNT1, its deficiency in mice specifically modulates transversal cortical bone morphology.

We explored the physiological relevance of the protein Osteomodulin (OMD) that we previously found to be induced by the osteoanabolic molecule WNT1. While other studies have shown that OMD is involved in the regulation of collagen fibril formation in vitro, its function in vivo has not been investigated. We confirmed that OMD is directly regulated by WNT1 but surprisingly, when we bred mice lacking OMD with mice engineered to highly express WNT1, we found that the osteoanabolic effect of WNT1 was unaffected by the absence of OMD. Interestingly, mice lacking OMD did show differences in the shape of their bones, particularly in their width, despite no significant changes in bone density or length. Investigation of the bone matrix of mice lacking OMD at the nanostructural level indicated moderate differences in the organization of collagen fibrils. This study provided further insights into the effect of WNT1 on bone metabolism and highlighted a specific function of OMD in skeletal morphology.

Piezo1 expression in chondrocytes controls endochondral ossification and osteoarthritis development.

Piezo proteins are mechanically activated ion channels, which are required for mechanosensing functions in a variety of cell types. While we and others have previously demonstrated that the expression of Piezo1 in osteoblast lineage cells is essential for bone-anabolic processes, there was only suggestive evidence indicating a role of Piezo1 and/or Piezo2 in cartilage. Here we addressed the question if and how chondrocyte expression of the mechanosensitive proteins Piezo1 or Piezo2 controls physiological endochondral ossification and pathological osteoarthritis (OA) development. Mice with chondrocyte-specific inactivation of Piezo1 (Piezo1Col2a1Cre), but not of Piezo2, developed a near absence of trabecular bone below the chondrogenic growth plate postnatally. Moreover, all Piezo1Col2a1Cre animals displayed multiple fractures of rib bones at 7 days of age, which were located close to the growth plates. While skeletal growth was only mildly affected in these mice, OA pathologies were markedly less pronounced compared to littermate controls at 60 weeks of age. Likewise, when OA was induced by anterior cruciate ligament transection, only the chondrocyte inactivation of Piezo1, not of Piezo2, resulted in attenuated articular cartilage degeneration. Importantly, osteophyte formation and maturation were also reduced in Piezo1Col2a1Cre mice. We further observed increased Piezo1 protein abundance in cartilaginous zones of human osteophytes. Finally, we identified Ptgs2 and Ccn2 as potentially relevant Piezo1 downstream genes in chondrocytes. Collectively, our data do not only demonstrate that Piezo1 is a critical regulator of physiological and pathological endochondral ossification processes, but also suggest that Piezo1 antagonists may be established as a novel approach to limit osteophyte formation in OA.

An Additional Lrp4 High Bone Mass Mutation Mitigates the Sost-Knockout Phenotype in Mice by Increasing Bone Remodeling.

Pathogenic variants disrupting the binding between sclerostin (encoded by SOST) and its receptor LRP4 have previously been described to cause sclerosteosis, a rare high bone mass disorder. The sclerostin-LRP4 complex inhibits canonical WNT signaling, a key pathway regulating osteoblastic bone formation and a promising therapeutic target for common bone disorders, such as osteoporosis. In the current study, we crossed mice deficient for Sost (Sost-/-) with our p.Arg1170Gln Lrp4 knock-in (Lrp4KI/KI) mouse model to create double mutant Sost-/-;Lrp4KI/KI mice. We compared the phenotype of Sost-/- mice with that of Sost-/-;Lrp4KI/KI mice, to investigate a possible synergistic effect of the disease-causing p.Arg1170Trp variant in Lrp4 on Sost deficiency. Interestingly, presence of Lrp4KI alleles partially mitigated the Sost-/- phenotype. Cellular and dynamic histomorphometry did not reveal mechanistic insights into the observed phenotypic differences. We therefore determined the molecular effect of the Lrp4KI allele by performing bulk RNA sequencing on Lrp4KI/KI primary osteoblasts. Unexpectedly, mostly genes related to bone resorption or remodeling (Acp5, Rankl, Mmp9) were upregulated in Lrp4KI/KI primary osteoblasts. Verification of these markers in Lrp4KI/KI, Sost-/- and Sost-/-;Lrp4KI/KI mice revealed that sclerostin deficiency counteracts this Lrp4KI/KI effect in Sost-/-;Lrp4KI/KI mice. We therefore hypothesize that models with two inactivating Lrp4KI alleles rather activate bone remodeling, with a net gain in bone mass, whereas sclerostin deficiency has more robust anabolic effects on bone formation. Moreover, these effects of sclerostin and Lrp4 are stronger in female mice, contributing to a more severe phenotype than in males and more detectable phenotypic differences among different genotypes.

Mice heterozygous for an osteogenesis imperfecta-linked MBTPS2 variant display a compromised subchondral osteocyte lacunocanalicular network associated with abnormal articular cartilage.

Missense variants in the MBTPS2 gene, located on the X chromosome, have been associated with an X-linked recessive form of osteogenesis imperfecta (X-OI), an inherited bone dysplasia characterized by multiple and recurrent bone fractures, short stature, and various skeletal deformities in affected individuals. The role of site-2 protease, encoded by MBTPS2, and the molecular pathomechanism underlying the disease are to date elusive. This study is the first to report on the generation of two Mbtps2 mouse models, a knock-in mouse carrying one of the disease-causative MBTPS2 variants (N455S) and a Mbtps2 knock-out (ko) mouse. Because both loss-of-function variants lead to embryonic lethality in hemizygous male mutant mice, we performed a comprehensive skeletal analysis of heterozygous Mbtps2+/N455S and Mbtps2+/ko female mice. Both models displayed osteochondral abnormalities such as thinned subchondral bone, altered subchondral osteocyte interconnectivity as well as thickened articular cartilage with chondrocyte clustering, altogether resembling an early osteoarthritis (OA) phenotype. However, distant from the joints, no alterations in the bone mass and turnover could be detected in either of the mutant mice. Based on our findings we conclude that MBTPS2 haploinsufficiency results in early OA-like alterations in the articular cartilage and underlying subchondral bone, which likely precede the development of typical OI phenotype in bone. Our study provides first evidence for a potential role of site-2 protease for maintaining homeostasis of both bone and cartilage.

Zinc and vitamin D deficiency and supplementation in hypophosphatasia patients - A retrospective study.

Hypophosphatasia (HPP) is characterized by severe skeletal symptoms including mineralization defects, insufficiency fractures, and delayed facture healing or non-unions. HPP is caused by mutations of the tissue non-specific alkaline phosphatase (TNSALP). Zinc is a cofactor of TNSALP and vitamin D an important regulator of bone matrix mineralization. Data from this retrospective study indicates that deficiencies in zinc or vitamin D occur in HPP patients with a similar frequency as in the general population. While guidelines for repletion of these micronutrients have been established for the general population, the transferability of the efficacy and safety of these regiments to HPP patients still needed to be determined. We filtered for variant classification (ACMG 3-5, non-benign) and data completeness from a total cohort of 263 HPP patients. 73.5 % of this sub-cohort were vitamin D deficient while 27.2 % were zinc deficient. We retrospectively evaluated the effect of supplementation according to general guidelines in 10 patients with zinc-deficiency and 38 patients with vitamin d-deficiency. The treatments significantly raised serum zinc or vitamin D levels respectively. All other assessed disease markers (alkaline phosphatase, pyrodoxal-5-phosphate) or bone turnover markers (phosphate, calcium, parathyroid hormone, bone specific alkaline phosphatase, creatinine, desoxypyridinoline) remained unchanged. These results highlight that general guidelines for zinc and vitamin D repletion can be successfully applied to HPP patients in order to prevent deficiency symptoms without exacerbating the disease burden or causing adverse effects due to changes in bone and calcium homeostasis.

Ex Vivo Model of Neuroblastoma Plasticity.

Tumor plasticity is essential for adaptation to changing environmental conditions, in particular during the process of metastasis. In this study, we compared morphological and biochemical differences between LAN-1 neuroblastoma (NB) cells recovered from a subcutaneous xenograft primary tumor (PT) and the corresponding three generations of bone metastasis (BM I-III). Moreover, growth behavior, as well as the response to chemotherapy and immune cells were assessed. For this purpose, F-actin was stained, mRNA and protein expression assessed, and lactate secretion analyzed. Further, we measured adhesion to collagen I, the growth rate of spheroids in the presence and absence of vincristine, and the production of IL-6 by peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) co-incubated with PT or BM I-III. Analysis of PT and the three BM generations revealed that their growth rate decreased from PT to BM III, and accordingly, PT cells reacted most sensitively to vincristine. In addition, morphology, adaption to hypoxic conditions, as well as transcriptomes showed strong differences between the cell lines. Moreover, BM I and BM II cells exhibited a significantly different ability to stimulate human immune cells compared to PT and BM III cells. Interestingly, the differences in immune cell stimulation corresponded to the expression level of the cancer-testis antigen MAGE-A3. In conclusion, our ex vivo model allows to analyze the adaption of tumor populations to different microenvironments and clearly demonstrates the strong alteration of tumor cell populations during this process.

Prevention of Hypomineralization In Auditory Ossicles of Vitamin D Receptor (Vdr) Deficient Mice.

Intact mineralization of the auditory ossicles - the smallest bones in the body - is essential for sound transmission in the middle ear, while ossicular hypomineralization is associated with conductive hearing loss. Here, we performed a high-resolution analysis of the ossicles in vitamin D receptor deficient mice (Vdr-/- ), which are characterized by hypocalcemia and skeletal mineralization defects, and investigated whether local hypomineralization can be prevented by feeding a calcium-rich rescue diet (Vdr-/- res ). In Vdr-/- mice fed a regular diet (Vdr-/- reg ), quantitative backscattered electron imaging (qBEI) revealed an increased void volume (porosity, p<0.0001) along with lower mean calcium content (CaMean, p=0.0008) and higher heterogeneity of mineralization (CaWidth, p=0.003) compared to WT mice. Furthermore, a higher osteoid volume per bone volume (OV/BV; p=0.0002) and a higher osteocyte lacunar area (Lc.Ar; p=0.01) were found in histomorphometric analysis in Vdr-/- reg mice. In Vdr-/- res mice, full rescue of OV/BV and Lc.Ar (both p>0.05 vs. WT) and partial rescue of porosity and CaWidth (p=0.02 and p=0.04 vs. WT) were observed. Compared with Hyp mice, a model of X-linked hypophosphatemic rickets, Vdr-/- reg mice showed a lower osteoid volume in the ossicles (p=0.0002), but similar values in the lumbar spine. These results are consistent with later postnatal impairment of mineral homeostasis in Vdr-/- mice than in Hyp mice, underscoring the importance of intact mineral homeostasis for ossicle mineralization during development. In conclusion, we revealed a distinct phenotype of hypomineralization in the auditory ossicles of Vdr-/- mice that can be partially prevented by a rescue diet. Since a positive effect of a calcium-rich diet on ossicular mineralization was demonstrated, our results open new treatment strategies for conductive hearing loss. Future studies should investigate the impact of improved ossicular mineralization on hearing function.

Pathogenic variants in GNPTAB and GNPTG encoding distinct subunits of GlcNAc-1-phosphotransferase differentially impact bone resorption in patients with mucolipidosis type II and III.

PURPOSE: Pathogenic variants in GNPTAB and GNPTG, encoding different subunits of GlcNAc-1-phosphotransferase, cause mucolipidosis (ML) II, MLIII alpha/beta, and MLIII gamma. This study aimed to investigate the cellular and molecular bases underlying skeletal abnormalities in patients with MLII and MLIII. METHODS: We analyzed bone biopsies from patients with MLIII alpha/beta or MLIII gamma by undecalcified histology and histomorphometry. The skeletal status of Gnptgko and Gnptab-deficient mice was determined and complemented by biochemical analysis of primary Gnptgko bone cells. The clinical relevance of the mouse data was underscored by systematic urinary collagen crosslinks quantification in patients with MLII, MLIII alpha/beta, and MLIII gamma. RESULTS: The analysis of iliac crest biopsies revealed that bone remodeling is impaired in patients with GNPTAB-associated MLIII alpha/beta but not with GNPTG-associated MLIII gamma. Opposed to Gnptab-deficient mice, skeletal remodeling is not affected in Gnptgko mice. Most importantly, patients with variants in GNPTAB but not in GNPTG exhibited increased bone resorption. CONCLUSION: The gene-specific impact on bone remodeling in human individuals and in mice proposes distinct molecular functions of the GlcNAc-1-phosphotransferase subunits in bone cells. We therefore appeal for the necessity to classify MLIII based on genetic in addition to clinical criteria to ensure appropriate therapy.

Imbalanced cellular metabolism compromises cartilage homeostasis and joint function in a mouse model of mucolipidosis type III gamma.

Mucolipidosis type III (MLIII) gamma is a rare inherited lysosomal storage disorder caused by mutations in GNPTG encoding the γ-subunit of GlcNAc-1-phosphotransferase, the key enzyme ensuring proper intracellular location of multiple lysosomal enzymes. Patients with MLIII gamma typically present with osteoarthritis and joint stiffness, suggesting cartilage involvement. Using Gnptg knockout (Gnptgko ) mice as a model of the human disease, we showed that missorting of a number of lysosomal enzymes is associated with intracellular accumulation of chondroitin sulfate in Gnptgko chondrocytes and their impaired differentiation, as well as with altered microstructure of the cartilage extracellular matrix (ECM). We also demonstrated distinct functional and structural properties of the Achilles tendons isolated from Gnptgko and Gnptab knock-in (Gnptabki ) mice, the latter displaying a more severe phenotype resembling mucolipidosis type II (MLII) in humans. Together with comparative analyses of joint mobility in MLII and MLIII patients, these findings provide a basis for better understanding of the molecular reasons leading to joint pathology in these patients. Our data suggest that lack of GlcNAc-1-phosphotransferase activity due to defects in the γ-subunit causes structural changes within the ECM of connective and mechanosensitive tissues, such as cartilage and tendon, and eventually results in functional joint abnormalities typically observed in MLIII gamma patients. This idea was supported by a deficit of the limb motor function in Gnptgko mice challenged on a rotarod under fatigue-associated conditions, suggesting that the impaired motor performance of Gnptgko mice was caused by fatigue and/or pain at the joint.This article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper.

Osteoblast-specific expression of Panx3 is dispensable for postnatal bone remodeling.

Since cost-effective osteoanabolic treatment options remain to be established, it is relevant to identify specific molecules physiologically regulating osteoblast differentiation and/or activity that are principally accessible as drug targets. Specific or predominant gene expression in a given cell type often predicts a relevant function in the respective tissue. Thus, we aimed to identify genes encoding membrane-associated proteins with selective expression in differentiated osteoblasts. We therefore applied an unbiased approach, i.e. Affymetrix Gene Chip hybridization, to compare global gene expression in primary murine osteoblasts at two stages of differentiation. For the most strongly induced genes we analyzed their expression pattern in different tissues, which led us to identify known and unknown osteoblast differentiation markers with predominant expression in bone. One of these genes was Panx3, encoding a transmembrane hemichannel with ill-defined function in skeletal remodeling. To decipher the role of Panx3 in osteoblasts we first generated Panx3-fl/fl mice carrying a Runx2-Cre transgene. Using undecalcified histology followed by bone-specific histomorphometry we did not observe any significant difference between 24 weeks old Cre-negative and Cre-positive littermates. We additionally generated and analyzed mice with ubiquitous Panx3 deletion, where a delay of endochondral ossification did not translate into a detectable skeletal phenotype after weaning, possibly explained by compensatory induction of Panx1. Of note, newborn Panx3-deficient mice displayed significantly reduced serum glucose levels, which was not the case in older animals. Our findings demonstrate that Panx3 expression in osteoblasts is not required for postnatal bone remodeling, which essentially rules out its suitability as a target protein for osteoanabolic medication.

The Lysosomal Protein Arylsulfatase B Is a Key Enzyme Involved in Skeletal Turnover.

Skeletal pathologies are frequently observed in lysosomal storage disorders, yet the relevance of specific lysosomal enzymes in bone remodeling cell types is poorly defined. Two lysosomal enzymes, ie, cathepsin K (Ctsk) and Acp5 (also known as tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase), have long been known as molecular marker proteins of differentiated osteoclasts. However, whereas the cysteine protease Ctsk is directly involved in the degradation of bone matrix proteins, the molecular function of Acp5 in osteoclasts is still unknown. Here we show that Acp5, in concert with Acp2 (lysosomal acid phosphatase), is required for dephosphorylation of the lysosomal mannose 6-phosphate targeting signal to promote the activity of specific lysosomal enzymes. Using an unbiased approach we identified the glycosaminoglycan-degrading enzyme arylsulfatase B (Arsb), mutated in mucopolysaccharidosis type VI (MPS-VI), as an osteoclast marker, whose activity depends on dephosphorylation by Acp2 and Acp5. Similar to Acp2/Acp5-/- mice, Arsb-deficient mice display lysosomal storage accumulation in osteoclasts, impaired osteoclast activity, and high trabecular bone mass. Of note, the most prominent lysosomal storage accumulation was observed in osteocytes from Arsb-deficient mice, yet this pathology did not impair production of sclerostin (Sost) and Fgf23. Because the influence of enzyme replacement therapy (ERT) on bone remodeling in MPS-VI is still unknown, we additionally treated Arsb-deficient mice by weekly injection of recombinant human ARSB from 12 to 24 weeks of age. We found that the high bone mass phenotype of Arsb-deficient mice and the underlying bone cell deficits were fully corrected by ERT in the trabecular compartment. Taken together, our results do not only show that the function of Acp5 in osteoclasts is linked to dephosphorylation and activation of lysosomal enzymes, they also provide an important proof-of-principle for the feasibility of ERT to correct bone cell pathologies in lysosomal storage disorders. © 2018 The Authors. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research Published by Wiley Periodicals Inc.

Conditional mouse models support the role of SLC39A14 (ZIP14) in Hyperostosis Cranialis Interna and in bone homeostasis.

Hyperostosis Cranialis Interna (HCI) is a rare bone disorder characterized by progressive intracranial bone overgrowth at the skull. Here we identified by whole-exome sequencing a dominant mutation (L441R) in SLC39A14 (ZIP14). We show that L441R ZIP14 is no longer trafficked towards the plasma membrane and excessively accumulates intracellular zinc, resulting in hyper-activation of cAMP-CREB and NFAT signaling. Conditional knock-in mice overexpressing L438R Zip14 in osteoblasts have a severe skeletal phenotype marked by a drastic increase in cortical thickness due to an enhanced endosteal bone formation, resembling the underlying pathology in HCI patients. Remarkably, L438R Zip14 also generates an osteoporotic trabecular bone phenotype. The effects of osteoblastic overexpression of L438R Zip14 therefore mimic the disparate actions of estrogen on cortical and trabecular bone through osteoblasts. Collectively, we reveal ZIP14 as a novel regulator of bone homeostasis, and that manipulating ZIP14 might be a therapeutic strategy for bone diseases.

Ultra-high matrix mineralization of sperm whale auditory ossicles facilitates high sound pressure and high-frequency underwater hearing.

The auditory ossicles-malleus, incus and stapes-are the smallest bones in mammalian bodies and enable stable sound transmission to the inner ear. Sperm whales are one of the deepest diving aquatic mammals that produce and perceive sounds with extreme loudness greater than 180 dB and frequencies higher than 30 kHz. Therefore, it is of major interest to decipher the microstructural basis for these unparalleled hearing abilities. Using a suite of high-resolution imaging techniques, we reveal that auditory ossicles of sperm whales are highly functional, featuring an ultra-high matrix mineralization that is higher than their teeth. On a micro-morphological and cellular level, this was associated with osteonal structures and osteocyte lacunar occlusions through calcified nanospherites (i.e. micropetrosis), while the bones were characterized by a higher hardness compared to a vertebral bone of the same animals as well as to human auditory ossicles. We propose that the ultra-high mineralization facilitates the unique hearing ability of sperm whales. High matrix mineralization represents an evolutionary conserved or convergent adaptation to middle ear sound transmission.

Post-weaning epiphysiolysis causes distal femur dysplasia and foreshortened hindlimbs in fetuin-A-deficient mice.

Fetuin-A / α2-Heremans-Schmid-glycoprotein (gene name Ahsg) is a systemic inhibitor of ectopic calcification. Due to its high affinity for calcium phosphate, fetuin-A is highly abundant in mineralized bone matrix. Foreshortened femora in fetuin-A-deficient Ahsg-/- mice indicated a role for fetuin-A in bone formation. We studied early postnatal bone development in fetuin-A-deficient mice and discovered that femora from Ahsg-/- mice exhibited severely displaced distal epiphyses and deformed growth plates, similar to the human disease slipped capital femoral epiphysis (SCFE). The growth plate slippage occurred in 70% of Ahsg-/- mice of both sexes around three weeks postnatal. At this time point, mice weaned and rapidly gained weight and mobility. Epiphysis slippage never occurred in wildtype and heterozygous Ahsg+/- mice. Homozygous fetuin-A-deficient Ahsg-/- mice and, to a lesser degree, heterozygous Ahsg+/- mice showed lesions separating the proliferative zone from the hypertrophic zone of the growth plate. The hypertrophic growth plate cartilage in long bones from Ahsg-/- mice was significantly elongated and V-shaped until three weeks of age and thus prior to the slippage. Genome-wide transcriptome analysis of laser-dissected distal femoral growth plates from 13-day-old Ahsg-/- mice revealed a JAK-STAT-mediated inflammatory response including a 550-fold induction of the chemokine Cxcl9. At this stage, vascularization of the elongated growth plates was impaired, which was visualized by immunofluorescence staining. Thus, fetuin-A-deficient mice may serve as a rodent model of growth plate pathologies including SCFE and inflammatory cartilage degradation.

The chaperone activity of 4PBA ameliorates the skeletal phenotype of Chihuahua, a zebrafish model for dominant osteogenesis imperfecta.

Classical osteogenesis imperfecta (OI) is a bone disease caused by type I collagen mutations and characterized by bone fragility, frequent fractures in absence of trauma and growth deficiency. No definitive cure is available for OI and to develop novel drug therapies, taking advantage of a repositioning strategy, the small teleost zebrafish (Danio rerio) is a particularly appealing model. Its small size, high proliferative rate, embryo transparency and small amount of drug required make zebrafish the model of choice for drug screening studies, when a valid disease model is available. We performed a deep characterization of the zebrafish mutant Chihuahua, that carries a G574D (p.G736D) substitution in the α1 chain of type I collagen. We successfully validated it as a model for classical OI. Growth of mutants was delayed compared with WT. X-ray, µCT, alizarin red/alcian blue and calcein staining revealed severe skeletal deformity, presence of fractures and delayed mineralization. Type I collagen extracted from different tissues showed abnormal electrophoretic migration and low melting temperature. The presence of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) enlargement due to mutant collagen retention in osteoblasts and fibroblasts of mutant fish was shown by electron and confocal microscopy. Two chemical chaperones, 4PBA and TUDCA, were used to ameliorate the cellular stress and indeed 4PBA ameliorated bone mineralization in larvae and skeletal deformities in adult, mainly acting on reducing ER cisternae size and favoring collagen secretion. In conclusion, our data demonstrated that ER stress is a novel target to ameliorate OI phenotype; chemical chaperones such as 4PBA may be, alone or in combination, a new class of molecules to be further investigated for OI treatment.

Immediate effects of retinoic acid on gene expression in primary murine osteoblasts.

Consistent with clinical observations demonstrating that hypervitaminosis A is associated with increased skeletal fracture risk, we have previously found that dietary retinol deprivation partially corrects the bone mineralization defects in a mouse model of X-linked hypophosphatemic rickets. That retinol-dependent signaling pathways impact the skeleton is further supported by various findings demonstrating a negative influence of retinoic acid (RA) on bone-forming osteoblasts. We hypothesized that RA would directly regulate the expression of specific target genes in osteoblasts, and we aimed to identify these by genome-wide expression analyses. Here we show that high dietary retinol intake in mice causes low bone mass associated with increased osteoclastogenesis and decreased osteoblastogenesis, but intact bone matrix mineralization. We additionally found that short-term treatment of primary osteoblasts with RA causes a rapid induction of specific genes involved in either retinol-dependent signaling (i.e. Rara, Crabp2) or skeletal remodeling (i.e. Twist2, Tnfsf11). In contrast, neither expression of established osteoblast differentiation markers nor the proliferation rate was immediately affected by RA administration. Collectively, our data suggest that the negative effects of vitamin A on skeletal integrity are explainable by an immediate influence of RA signaling on specific genes in osteoblasts that in turn influence bone remodeling.

Impaired bone remodeling and its correction by combination therapy in a mouse model of mucopolysaccharidosis-I.

Mucopolysaccharidosis-I (MPS-I) is a lysosomal storage disease (LSD) caused by inactivating mutations of IDUA, encoding the glycosaminoglycan-degrading enzyme α-l-iduronidase. Although MPS-I is associated with skeletal abnormalities, the impact of IDUA deficiency on bone remodeling is poorly defined. Here we report that Idua-deficient mice progressively develop a high bone mass phenotype with pathological lysosomal storage in cells of the osteoblast lineage. Histomorphometric quantification identified shortening of bone-forming units and reduced osteoclast numbers per bone surface. This phenotype was not transferable into wild-type mice by bone marrow transplantation (BMT). In contrast, the high bone mass phenotype of Idua-deficient mice was prevented by BMT from wild-type donors. At the cellular level, BMT did not only normalize defects of Idua-deficient osteoblasts and osteocytes but additionally caused increased osteoclastogenesis. Based on clinical observations in an individual with MPS-I, previously subjected to BMT and enzyme replacement therapy (ERT), we treated Idua-deficient mice accordingly and found that combining both treatments normalized all histomorphometric parameters of bone remodeling. Our results demonstrate that BMT and ERT profoundly affect skeletal remodeling of Idua-deficient mice, thereby suggesting that individuals with MPS-I should be monitored for their bone remodeling status, before and after treatment, to avoid long-term skeletal complications.

The Anti-Osteoanabolic Function of Sclerostin Is Blunted in Mice Carrying a High Bone Mass Mutation of Lrp5.

Activating mutations of the putative Wnt co-receptor Lrp5 or inactivating mutations of the secreted molecule Sclerostin cause excessive bone formation in mice and humans. Previous studies have suggested that Sclerostin functions as an Lrp5 antagonist, yet clear in vivo evidence was still missing, and alternative mechanisms have been discussed. Moreover, because osteoblast-specific inactivation of ß-catenin, the major intracellular mediator of canonical Wnt signaling, primarily affected bone resorption, it remained questionable, whether Sclerostin truly acts as a Wnt signaling antagonist by interacting with Lrp5. In an attempt to address this relevant question, we generated a mouse model (Col1a1-Sost) with transgenic overexpression of Sclerostin under the control of a 2.3-kb Col1a1 promoter fragment. These mice displayed the expected low bone mass phenotype as a consequence of reduced bone formation. The Col1a1-Sost mice were then crossed with two mouse lines carrying different high bone mass mutations of Lrp5 (Lrp5(A170V) and Lrp5(G213V)), both of them potentially interfering with Sclerostin binding. Using µCT-scanning and histomorphometry we found that the anti-osteoanabolic influence of Sclerostin overexpression was not observed in Lrp5(A213V/A213V) mice and strongly reduced in Lrp5(A170V/A170V) mice. As a control we applied the same strategy with mice overexpressing the transmembrane Wnt signaling antagonist Krm2 and found that the anti-osteoanabolic influence of the Col1a1-Krm2 transgene was not affected by either of the Lrp5 mutations. Taken together, our data support the concept that Sclerostin inhibits bone formation through Lrp5 interaction, yet their physiological relevance remains to be established.