Neuropsychological and behavioural outcomes in epilepsy involving the insula: A scoping review.

Objective: In patients with epilepsy, the insula has been increasingly recognized as a common site of seizures. There is growing interest in understanding the cognitive and psychological consequences of insular epilepsy to help provide clinical recommendations to support patient's cognitive and psychosocial functioning, and to help identify candidates for epilepsy resective surgery. The aim of this scoping review was to describe the cognitive and behavioural characteristics associated with insular epilepsy in children and adults. Method: A systematic search was completed according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis -Extension for Scoping Reviews guidelines. Eligible studies reported on a neuropsychological or behavioural outcome, using standardized or research-based psychological measures, in individuals with insular epilepsy, (i.e. the seizure focus and/or surgical resection included the insula), and a comparison group. After duplicates were removed, 2,423 citations were identified from the search, and 39 studies were included in the scoping review. Results: Across the included studies, intellectual/global cognitive functioning and language were most often evaluated. Lower functioning was found across multiple cognitive and behavioural processes in pediatric and adult patients with insular epilepsy. Following resective surgery involving the insula, behavioural and cognitive outcomes are general stable. Conclusions: The results of this scoping review further neuropsychologists' knowledge of the cognitive and behavioural outcomes of insular seizures prior to and following surgical treatment. These results can aid in counselling patients of the potential cognitive dysfunctions, and aid with treatment planning.

Impact of Discontinuing Both Hypertonic Saline and Dornase Alfa After Elexacaftor/Tezacaftor/Ivacaftor in Cystic Fibrosis.

Rationale Evaluating approaches to reduce treatment burden is a research priority among people with CF (pwCF) on highly effective modulators including elexacaftor/tezacaftor/ivacaftor (ETI). Objective To evaluate the impact of discontinuing both hypertonic saline (HS) and dornase alfa (DA) versus continuing both therapies among a subgroup of participants in the SIMPLIFY study who sequentially participated in trials evaluating the independent clinical effects of discontinuing HS and DA. Methods SIMPLIFY participants ≥12 years old on ETI and comprising a subgroup using both HS and DA at study entry were randomized to the HS or DA trial, and then randomized 1:1 to continue or discontinue the applicable therapy for 6 weeks. After completion of the first trial, eligible participants could enroll in the second trial beginning with a 2-week run in. Study outcomes were compared across the duration of SIMPLIFY participation between a cohort remaining on both therapies during SIMPLIFY versus a cohort that sequentially discontinued both as a result of trial randomizations. Multivariable regression models were used to estimate treatment differences, adjusted for time between trials, trial order, baseline age, sex at birth and percent predicted forced expiratory volume in one second (ppFEV1) at study entry. Results There were 43 participants who discontinued both therapies by the end of SIMPLIFY and 63 who remained on both, with overall average ppFEV1 at study entry 96.7% and average duration of follow up from beginning of the first trial to completion of the second trial 3.9 months, including time between trials. No clinically meaningful difference in the change in ppFEV1 from baseline to completion of the second trial was observed between those who discontinued versus remained on both therapies (difference: 0.22% Off-On, 95% CI: -1.60,2.03). Changes in LCI2.5, patient reported, and safety outcomes were also comparable. Patient reported treatment burden, as measured by a CFQ-R subscale, significantly decreased in those discontinuing both therapies. Conclusions SIMPLIFY participants who sequentially discontinued both HS and DA experienced no meaningful changes in clinical outcomes and reported decreased treatment burden as compared to those who remained on both therapies. These data continue to inform a new era of post-modulator care of pwCF.

Concussion-Related Disruptions to Hub Connectivity in the Default Mode Network Are Related to Symptoms and Cognition.

Concussions present with a myriad of symptomatic and cognitive concerns; however, the relationship between these functional disruptions and the underlying changes in the brain are not yet well understood. Hubs, or brain regions that are connected to many different functional networks, may be specifically disrupted after concussion. Given the implications in concussion research, we quantified hub disruption within the default mode network (DMN) and between the DMN and other brain networks. We collected resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging data from collegiate student-athletes (n = 44) at three time points: baseline (before beginning their athletic season), acute post-injury (approximately 48h after a diagnosed concussion), and recovery (after starting return-to-play progression, but before returning to contact). We used self-reported symptoms and computerized cognitive assessments collected across similar time points to link these functional connectivity changes to clinical outcomes. Concussion resulted in increased connectivity between regions within the DMN compared with baseline and recovery, and this post-injury connectivity was more positively related to symptoms and more negatively related to visual memory performance compared with baseline and recovery. Further, concussion led to decreased connectivity between DMN hubs and visual network non-hubs relative to baseline and recovery, and this post-injury connectivity was more negatively related to somatic symptoms and more positively related to visual memory performance compared with baseline and recovery. Relationships between functional connectivity, symptoms, and cognition were not significantly different at baseline versus recovery. These results highlight a unique relationship between self-reported symptoms, visual memory performance, and acute functional connectivity changes involving DMN hubs after concussion in athletes. This may provide evidence for a disrupted balance of within- and between-network communication highlighting possible network inefficiencies after concussion. These results aid in our understanding of the pathophysiological disruptions after concussion and inform our understanding of the associations between disruptions in brain connectivity and specific clinical presentations acutely post-injury.

Attention and neurodevelopment in young children who are HIV-exposed uninfected.

ABSTRACTChildren HIV-exposed, uninfected (CHEU) are at risk for compromised developmental outcomes. Attention is important for behavioural, cognitive and academic skills, yet has not been thoroughly investigated compared to children HIV-unexposed uninfected (CHUU). Fifty-five CHEU and 51 CHUU children were recruited at 5.5 years of age. Measures of inattention (IA), hyperactivity/impulsivity (HI) and total scores were collected using the parent-reported ADHD-Rating-Scale-IV. Measures of intelligence, visuomotor skills, academics and adaptive functioning were obtained. Analyses of between-group differences were performed as were correlational and multiple regression models, accounting for maternal education, employment and delivery type. Few children met clinical cut-offs for probable ADHD (3.6% CHEU, 2.0% CHUU), and no group differences in measures of IA, HI and combined scores were found. CHEU scored significantly lower than CHUU on intelligence, visuomotor function, academic skills and aspects of adaptive behaviour, though within age expectations. Lower Full-Scale IQ and Processing Speed were associated with higher IA in CHEU and lower adaptive functioning with higher IA in CHUU. Across both groups, children of unemployed mothers had more HI symptoms. CHEU were not at increased risk for attention difficulties at 5.5 years of age. Maternal employment status highlights the contribution of sociodemographic factors in shaping behaviour and neurodevelopment.

Postoperative cerebellar mutism syndrome is an acquired Autism-like network disturbance.

BACKGROUND: Cerebellar mutism syndrome (CMS) is a common and debilitating complication of posterior fossa tumour surgery in children. Affected children exhibit communication and social impairments that overlap phenomenologically with subsets of deficits exhibited by children with Autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Although both CMS and ASD are thought to involve disrupted cerebro-cerebellar circuitry, they are considered independent conditions due to an incomplete understanding of their shared neural substrates. METHODS: In this study, we analyzed post-operative cerebellar lesions from 90 children undergoing posterior fossa resection of medulloblastoma, 30 of whom developed CMS. Lesion locations were mapped to a standard atlas, and the networks functionally connected to each lesion were computed in normative adult and paediatric datasets. Generalizability to ASD was assessed using an independent cohort of children with ASD and matched controls (n=427). RESULTS: Lesions in children who developed CMS involved the vermis and inferomedial cerebellar lobules. They engaged large-scale cerebellothalamocortical circuits with a preponderance for the prefrontal and parietal cortices in the paediatric and adult connectomes, respectively. Moreover, with increasing connectomic age, CMS-associated lesions demonstrated stronger connectivity to the midbrain/red nuclei, thalami and inferior parietal lobules and weaker connectivity to prefrontal cortex. Importantly, the CMS-associated lesion network was independently reproduced in ASD and correlated with communication and social deficits, but not repetitive behaviours. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings indicate that CMS-associated lesions result in an ASD-like network disturbance that occurs during sensitive windows of brain development. A common network disturbance between CMS and ASD may inform improved treatment strategies for affected children.

Labs Do Not Predict Postoperative Intra-abdominal Abscess in Pediatric Perforated Appendicitis.

INTRODUCTION: We aim to evaluate the utility of postoperative labs in predicting the development of an intra-abdominal abscess (IAA) in pediatric patients with perforated appendicitis. We hypothesize that postoperative labs are not predictive of IAA development. METHODS: This was a single-institution retrospective cohort study that included pediatric patients (n = 61) who underwent surgery for perforated appendicitis from January 1, 2019 to December 1, 2020. Patients were stratified into those who developed a postoperative IAA (n = 22) and those who did not (n = 39). Postoperative labs (white blood cell [WBC] count, absolute neutrophil count, platelet count, C-reactive protein) were examined. Mann-Whitney U tests and chi-square tests were used to assess for differences between groups. RESULTS: There was extensive heterogeneity and overlap in postoperative lab values between patients who developed an IAA and those who did not. Almost all patients who developed an IAA had clinical signs that were indicative of abscess formation regardless of their postoperative WBC count or change in WBC count. While patients who developed an IAA had a higher postoperative median WBC count (10.8 versus 8.4, P = 0.003) and a smaller WBC count decrease (-4.9 versus -7.4, P = 0.01), no cutoff value for any of the examined lab values specifically predicted abscess formation. Postoperative median absolute neutrophil count (7.4 versus 4.0, P = 0.15), platelet count (360 versus 353, P = 0.98), and C-reactive protein (8.20 versus 5.32, P = 0.06) did not differ significantly. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that postoperative labs have limited clinical utility in evaluating IAA development in children with perforated appendicitis.

Discontinuation versus continuation of hypertonic saline or dornase alfa in modulator treated people with cystic fibrosis (SIMPLIFY): results from two parallel, multicentre, open-label, randomised, controlled, non-inferiority trials.

BACKGROUND: Reducing treatment burden is a priority for people with cystic fibrosis, whose health has benefited from using new modulators that substantially increase CFTR protein function. The SIMPLIFY study aimed to assess the effects of discontinuing nebulised hypertonic saline or dornase alfa in individuals using the CFTR modulator elexacaftor plus tezacaftor plus ivacaftor (ETI). METHODS: The SIMPLIFY study included two parallel, multicentre, open-label, randomised, controlled, non-inferiority trials at 80 participating clinics across the USA in the Cystic Fibrosis Therapeutics Development Network. We included individuals with cystic fibrosis aged 12-17 years with percent predicted FEV1 (ppFEV1) of 70% or more, or those aged 18 years or older with ppFEV1 of 60% or more, if they had been taking ETI and either (or both) mucoactive therapies (≥3% hypertonic saline or dornase alfa) for at least 90 days before screening. Participants on both hypertonic saline and dornase alfa were randomly assigned to one of the two trials, and those on a single therapy were assigned to the applicable trial. All participants were then randomly assigned 1:1 to continue or discontinue therapy for 6 weeks using permuted blocks of varying size, stratified by baseline ppFEV1 (week 0; ≥90% or <90%), single or concurrent use of hypertonic saline and dornase alfa, previous SIMPLIFY study participation (yes or no), and age (≥18 or <18 years). For participants randomly assigned to continue their therapy during a given trial, this therapy was instructed to be taken at least once daily according to each participant's pre-existing, clinically prescribed regimen. Hypertonic saline concentration was required to be at least 3%. The primary objective for each trial was to determine whether discontinuing was non-inferior to continuing, measured by the 6-week change in ppFEV1 in the per-protocol population. We established a non-inferiority margin of -3% for the difference between groups in the 6-week change in ppFEV1. Safety outcomes were analysed in the intention-to-treat population. This study is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT04378153. FINDINGS: From Aug 25, 2020, to May 25, 2022, a total of 672 unique participants were screened for eligibility for one or both trials, resulting in 847 total random assignments across both trials with 594 unique participants. 370 participants were randomly assigned in the hypertonic saline trial and 477 in the dornase alfa trial. Participants across both trials had an average ppFEV1 of 96·9%. Discontinuing treatment was non-inferior to continuing treatment with respect to the absolute 6-week change in ppFEV1 in both the hypertonic saline trial (-0·19% [95% CI -0·85 to 0·48] in the discontinuation group [n=133] vs 0·14% [-0·51 to 0·78] in the continuation group [n=140]; between-group difference -0·32% [-1·25 to 0·60]) and dornase alfa trial (0·18% [-0·38 to 0·74] in the discontinuation group [n=199] vs -0·16% [-0·73 to 0·41] in the continuation group [n=193]; between-group difference 0·35% [-0·45 to 1·14]), with consistent results in the intention-to-treat populations. In the hypertonic saline trial, 64 (35%) of 184 in the discontinuation group versus 44 (24%) of 186 participants in the continuation group and, in the dornase alfa trial, 89 (37%) of 240 in the discontinuation group versus 55 (23%) of 237 in the continuation group had at least one adverse event. INTERPRETATION: In individuals with cystic fibrosis on ETI with relatively well preserved pulmonary function, discontinuing daily hypertonic saline or dornase alfa for 6 weeks did not result in clinically meaningful differences in pulmonary function when compared with continuing treatment.

Corpus callosum injury after neurosurgical intervention for posthemorrhagic ventricular dilatation and association with neurodevelopmental outcome at 2 years.

OBJECTIVE: Direct injury to the corpus callosum (CC) due to neurosurgical interventions in infants with posthemorrhagic ventricular dilatation (PHVD) has not been reported in the literature. The authors observed a subset of infants who had suffered penetrating CC injury after neurosurgical interventions for PHVD and hypothesized that this pattern of injury may result in suboptimal CC maturation and neurodevelopmental impairment. METHODS: In this multicenter, retrospective, observational study, 100 preterm and 17 full-term infants with PHVD were included and compared with 23 preterm controls. Both neonatal and postneonatal brain MRI scans were assessed for injury, and measurements were performed on postneonatal MRI scans at 2 years' corrected age. Neurodevelopmental outcome was assessed at 2 years' corrected age. RESULTS: A total of 269 brain MRI scans of 140 infants were included. Of infants with PHVD, 48 (41%) had penetrating CC injury following neurosurgical interventions. The median (IQR) CC midsagittal surface area was smaller in infants with CC injury when compared with infants with PHVD who had intact CC and controls (190 mm2 [149-262 mm2] vs 268 mm2 [206-318 mm2] vs 289 mm2 [246-320 mm2], respectively; p < 0.001). In the univariate analysis, the area of the CC was associated with cognitive Z score (coefficient 0.009 [95% CI 0.005-0.012], p < 0.001) and motor Z score (coefficient 0.009 [95% CI 0.006-0.012], p < 0.001). In the multivariable model, CC injury was not independently associated with cognitive and motor Z score after adjusting for gestational age and presence of periventricular hemorrhagic infarction (coefficient 0.04 [95% CI -0.36 to 0.46] and -0.37 [95% CI -0.83 to 0.09], p = 0.7 and 0.1, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: CC injury was not uncommon following neurosurgical interventions for PHVD in both preterm and full-term infants. At the age of 2 years, the CC midsagittal surface area was smaller in infants with injury, but CC injury was not independently associated with cognitive and motor outcomes at 2 years' corrected age.

Connectomic Profiles and Cognitive Trajectories After Epilepsy Surgery in Children.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Neurocognitive outcomes after surgery for temporal lobe epilepsy in childhood are variable. Postoperative changes are not directly predicted by seizure freedom, and associations between epilepsy, neuropsychological function, and developing neural networks are poorly understood. Here, we leveraged whole-brain connectomic profiling in magnetoencephalography (MEG) to retrospectively study associations between brain connectivity and neuropsychological function in children with temporal lobe epilepsy undergoing resective surgery. METHODS: Clinical and MEG data were retrospectively analyzed for children who underwent temporal lobe epilepsy surgery at the Hospital for Sick Children from 2000 to 2021. Resting-state connectomes were constructed from neuromagnetic oscillations via the weighted-phase lag index. Using a partial least-squares (PLS) approach, we assessed multidimensional associations between patient connectomes, neuropsychological scores, and clinical covariates. Bootstrap resampling statistics were performed to assess statistical significance. RESULTS: A total of 133 medical records were reviewed, and 5 PLS analyses were performed. Each PLS analysis probed a particular neuropsychological domain and the associations between its baseline and postoperative scores and the connectomic data. In each PLS analysis, a significant latent variable was identified, representing a specific percentage of the variance in the data and relating neural networks to clinical covariates, which included changes in rote verbal memory (n = 41, p = 0.01, σ2 = 0.38), narrative/verbal memory (n = 57, p = 0.00, σ2 = 0.52), visual memory (n = 51, p = 0.00, σ2 = 0.43), working memory (n = 44, p = 0.00, σ2 = 0.52), and overall intellectual function (n = 59, p = 0.00, σ2 = 0.55). Children with more diffuse, bilateral intrinsic connectivity across several frequency bands showed lower scores on all neuropsychological assessments but demonstrated a greater propensity for gains after resective surgery. DISCUSSION: Here, we report that connectomes characterized by diffuse connectivity, reminiscent of developmentally immature networks, are associated with lower preoperative cognition and postoperative cognitive improvement. These findings provide a potential means to understand neurocognitive function in children with temporal lobe epilepsy and expected changes postoperatively.

Neurodevelopment of HIV-exposed uninfected children compared with HIV-unexposed uninfected children during early childhood.

HIV-exposed uninfected (HEU) children during the preschool and early school ages may be at-risk for neurodevelopmental challenges due to in utero and perinatal exposure to HIV and/or antiretroviral (ARV) medications. HEU children and HIV-unexposed uninfected (HUU) children from the community were recruited and tested at 3 to 4 and 5 to 6 years of age. Demographic information, HIV/ARV exposure and measures of intelligence, visuomotor skills, and adaptive functioning were obtained. Nonparametric tests assessed group differences and multiple regression analyses adjusted for demographic variables. Additional multiple regression analyses were performed within the HEU group to investigate associations between neurodevelopmental measures and variables of HIV/ARV exposure. At 3 to 4 years, 211 HEU children and 31 HUU children were assessed, and 144 HEU children and 58 HUU children were assessed at 5 to 6 years of age. At 3 to 4 years of age, HEU children scored significantly lower on measures of Full-Scale IQ, Performance IQ, visual motor integration, and adaptive functioning. At 5 to 6 years of age, HEU children scored significantly lower on all neurodevelopmental measures. At both ages, children who were female and those with mothers who were employed achieved higher scores on measures intellectual ability and/or adaptive functioning. Within the HEU group, no consistent associations were found between neurodevelopmental measures and HIV/ARV specific variables. HEU children demonstrated significantly lower scores on neurodevelopmental measures than HUU children during early childhood. Gaps in verbal intellectual abilities were identified with age, highlighting the importance of monitoring neurodevelopment in this population over time. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Very preterm brain at rest: longitudinal social-cognitive network connectivity during childhood.

Very preterm (VPT: ≤32 weeks of gestational age) birth poses an increased risk for social and cognitive morbidities that persist throughout life. Resting-state functional network connectivity studies provide information about the intrinsic capacity for cognitive processing. We studied the following four social-cognitive resting-state networks: the default mode, salience, frontal-parietal and language networks. We examined functional connectivity using magnetoencephalography with individual head localization using each participant's MRI at 6 (n = 40) and 8 (n = 40) years of age compared to age- and sex-matched full-term (FT) born children (n = 38 at 6 years and n = 43 at 8 years). VPT children showed increased connectivity compared to FT children in the gamma band (30-80 Hz) at 6 years within the default mode network (DMN), and between the DMN and the salience, frontal-parietal and language networks, pointing to more diffuse, less segregated processing across networks at this age. At 8 years, VPT children had more social and academic difficulties. Increased DMN connectivity at 6 years was associated with social and working memory difficulties at 8 years. Therefore, we suggest that increased DMN connectivity contributes to the observed emerging social and cognitive morbidities in school age.

Early academic achievement of HIV-exposed uninfected children compared to HIV-unexposed uninfected children at 5 years of age.

HIV-exposed uninfected (HEU) children may be at-risk for poorer academic achievement compared to HIV-unexposed uninfected (HUU) children due to in utero and perinatal exposure to HIV and/or anti-retroviral (ARV) medication. Understanding the risk factors for academic underachievement is important for implementing timely intervention and academic supports. HEU (N = 110, mean (SD) age 5.59 (0.22) years) and HUU (N = 43, mean (SD) age 5.73 (0.64) years) children completed assessments of general intelligence (WPPSI-III) and academic achievement (WRAT-4). Parent interviews and medical record reviews were used to obtain sociodemographic and maternal health data. HUU children scored significantly higher than HEU children on single word reading (p = 0.006), math calculation skills (p = 0.003), Verbal IQ, Performance IQ, Full Scale IQ, and Processing Speed (all WPPSI-III measures p < 0.001). Verbal IQ at 3-4 years predicted academic achievement at 5-6 years of age, yet sociodemographic and medical factors did not. These findings demonstrate that HEU children obtained significantly lower scores of intellectual, reading, and math abilities during early childhood. Addressing these early gaps before HEU children enter primary school will be critical for optimizing their learning and academic potential.

The nuclear transporter importin 13 is critical for cell survival during embryonic stem cell differentiation.

Nuclear transporter Importin (Imp, Ipo) 13 is known to transport various mammalian cargoes into/out of the nucleus, but its role in directing cell-fate is unclear. Here we examine the role of Imp13 in the maintenance of pluripotency and differentiation of embryonic stem cells (ESCs) for the first time, using an embryonic body (EB)-based model. When induced to differentiate, Ipo13-/- ESCs displayed slow proliferation, reduced EB size, and lower expression of the proliferation marker KI67, concomitant with an increase in the number of TUNEL+ nuclei compared to wildtype ESCs. At days 5 and 10 of differentiation, Ipo13-/- EBs also showed enhanced loss of the pluripotency transcript OCT3/4, and barely detectable clusters of OCT3/4 positive cells. Day 5 Ipo13-/- EBs further exhibited reduced levels of the mesodermal markers Brachyury and Mixl1, correlating with reduced numbers of haemoglobinised cells generated. Our findings suggest that Imp13 is critical to ESC survival as well as early post-gastrulation differentiation.

Preparedness, Confidence, and Best Practices in Preventing, Recognizing, Managing Mental Health Cases in NCAA Institutions.

CONTEXT: Currently, the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) recommends written policies and procedures that outline steps to support student athletes facing a mental health challenge and the referral processes for emergency and non-emergency mental health situations. OBJECTIVE: To assess the mental health policies and procedures implemented and athletic trainers' perceived confidence in preventing, recognizing and managing routine and crisis mental health cases across all three divisions of NCAA athletics. DESIGN: Cross-sectional survey design and chart review. SETTING: Online survey Participants: Athletic trainers with clinical responsibility at NCAA member institutions (n=1091, 21.5% response rate). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): Confidence in screening, preventative patient education, recognizing and referring routine and emergency mental health conditions (5-point Likert scale: 1= not at all confident, 2= hardly confident, 3= somewhat confident, 4= fairly confident, 5=very confident) using a content-validated survey (Cronbach's α=0.904) and mental health policy and procedure chart review. RESULTS: Respondents indicated they felt "fairly confident" with screening (40.21%, n=76/189) for risk of any mental health condition and "fairly confident" in implementing preventative patient education (42.11%, n=80/190). Respondents were "fairly confident" they could recognize (48.95%, n=93/190) and refer (45.79%, n=87/190) routine mental health conditions. Respondents were "fairly confident" they could recognize (46.84%, n=89/190), but "very confident" (46.32%, n=88/190) they could refer mental health emergencies. Policies lacked separate procedures for specific emergency mental health situations such as suicidal/homicidal ideation (36.1%), sexual assault (33.3%), substance abuse (19.4%), and confusional state (13.9%). Policies lacked prevention measures such as student athlete involvement (16.7%) in annual mental health education (16.7%). CONCLUSIONS: While athletic trainers were generally confident in their ability to address emergency and routine mental health conditions, opportunities exist to improve policies for prevention, screening, and referral. Best practice guidelines should be used as a guide to develop policies that foster an environment of mental health wellness.

Resilience and Vulnerability: Neurodevelopment of Very Preterm Children at Four Years of Age.

Children born very preterm (VPT) are at high-risk for altered brain development and impaired neurodevelopmental outcomes but are not well-studied before school-age. We investigated 64 four-year-olds: 37 VPT children [<32 weeks gestational age [GA]; 22 males; mean GA: 28.8 weeks ± 1.6], 25 full-term (FT) children (12 males), plus two VPT cases with ventriculomegaly and exceptionally resilient outcomes. All children underwent high-resolution structural magnetic resonance imaging and developmental assessments. Measures of brain volume, cortical thickness, and surface area were obtained. Children born VPT demonstrated reduced cerebral and cerebellar white matter volumes yet increased cerebral gray matter, temporal lobe, occipital lobe and ventricle volumes after adjusting for total brain volume. Cortical thickness was greater in the VPT children compared to FT children across all lobes. On developmental assessments, the VPT children scored lower on average than FT children while the two cases had intact cognitive abilities. In addition to larger ventricle volumes, the two cases had white matter and gray matter volumes within the ranges of the FT children. The VPT children displayed distinct differences in structural brain volumes at 4 years of age, consistent with delayed maturation. The cases with persistent ventriculomegaly and good cognitive outcomes displayed typical gray matter and increased white matter volumes, indicating a potential protective developmental phenomenon contributing to their intact cognitive abilities.

More than meets the eye: Longitudinal visual system neurodevelopment in very preterm children and anophthalmia.

Anophthalmia, characterized by the absence of an eye(s), is a rare major birth defect with a relatively unexplored neuroanatomy. Longitudinal comparison of white matter development in an anophthalmic (AC) very preterm (VPT) child with both binocular VPT and full-term (FT) children provides unique insights into early neurodevelopment of the visual system. VPT-born neonates (<32wks gestational age), including the infant with unilateral anophthalmia, underwent neuroimaging every two years from birth until 8 years. DTI images (N = 168) of the optic radiation (OR) and a control track, the posterior limb of the internal capsule (PLIC), were analysed. The diameter of the optic nerves (ON) were analysed using T1-weighted images. Significant group differences in FA and AD were found bilaterally in the OR and PLIC. This extends the literature on altered white matter development in VPT children, being the first longitudinal study showing stable group differences across the 4, 6 and 8 year timepoints. AC showed greater deficits in FA and AD bilaterally, but recovered towards VPT group means from 4 to 8 years-of-age. Complete lack of binocular input would be responsible for these early deficits; compensatory mechanisms may facilitate structural improvement over time. AC's ON exhibited significant atrophy ipsilateral to the anophthalmic eye. Functionally, AC displayed normal visual acuity and form perception, but naso-temporal bias in motion perception. Following these groups and AC longitudinally enabled novel understanding of the joint influence of monocular vision and VPT birth on neurodevelopment.

WNT signalling in the normal human adult testis and in male germ cell neoplasms.

STUDY QUESTION: Is WNT signalling functional in normal and/or neoplastic human male germ cells? SUMMARY ANSWER: Regulated WNT signalling component synthesis in human testes indicates that WNT pathway function changes during normal spermatogenesis and is active in testicular germ cell tumours (TGCTs), and that WNT pathway blockade may restrict seminoma growth and migration. WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY: Regulated WNT signalling governs many developmental processes, including those affecting male fertility during early germ cell development at embryonic and adult (spermatogonial) ages in mice. In addition, although many cancers arise from WNT signalling alterations, the functional relevance and WNT pathway components in TGCT, including germ cell neoplasia in situ (GCNIS), are unknown. STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATION: The cellular distribution of transcripts and proteins in WNT signalling pathways was assessed in fixed human testis sections with normal spermatogenesis, GCNIS and seminoma (2-16 individuals per condition). Short-term (1-7 h) ligand activation and long-term (1-5 days) functional outcomes were examined using the well-characterised seminoma cell line, TCam-2. Pathway inhibition used siRNA or chemical exposures over 5 days to assess survival and migration. PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODS: The cellular localisation of WNT signalling components was determined using in situ hybridisation and immunohistochemistry on Bouin's- and formalin-fixed human testis sections with complete spermatogenesis or germ cell neoplasia, and was also assessed in TCam-2 cells. Pathway function tests included exposure of TCam-2 cells to ligands, small molecules and siRNAs. Outcomes were measured by monitoring beta-catenin (CTNNB1) intracellular localisation, cell counting and gap closure measurements. MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE: Detection of nuclear-localised beta-catenin (CTNNB1), and key WNT signalling components (including WNT3A, AXIN2, TCF7L1 and TCF7L2) indicate dynamic and cell-specific pathway activity in the adult human testis. Their presence in germ cell neoplasia and functional analyses in TCam-2 cells indicate roles for active canonical WNT signalling in TGCT relating to viability and migration. All data were analysed to determine statistical significance. LARGE SCALE DATA: No large-scale datasets were generated in this study. LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTION: As TGCTs are rare and morphologically heterogeneous, functional studies in primary cancer cells were not performed. Functional analysis was performed with the only well-characterised, widely accepted seminoma-derived cell line. WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS: This study demonstrated the potential sites and involvement of the WNT pathway in human spermatogenesis, revealing similarities with murine testis that suggest the potential for functional conservation during normal spermatogenesis. Evidence that inhibition of canonical WNT signalling leads to loss of viability and migratory activity in seminoma cells suggests that potential treatments using small molecule or siRNA inhibitors may be suitable for patients with metastatic TGCTs. STUDY FUNDING AND COMPETING INTEREST(S): This study was funded by National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia (Project ID 1011340 to K.L.L. and H.E.A., and Fellowship ID 1079646 to K.L.L.) and supported by the Victorian Government's Operational Infrastructure Support Program. None of the authors have any competing interests.

Neuropsychological outcomes following pediatric lung transplantation.

OBJECTIVE: Lung transplantation (LTx) is a treatment option for eligible children with end-stage pulmonary diseases. Improving our understanding of longer-term developmental outcomes in pediatric LTx recipients is important for strategized interventions targeting cognitive difficulties. METHODS: Neuropsychological assessments were completed for children who received LTx at our center (2009-2017). Assessments comprised tasks of general intellect, memory, visual-perception, academics, and executive functioning as well as caregiver questionnaires of adaptive, executive, emotional, and behavioral functioning. Results were compared to age-matched population norms. Between-group nonparametric tests were performed pre-LTx vs post-LTx and for children with a primary diagnosis of cystic fibrosis (CF) vs other diagnoses (non-CF). RESULTS: Neuropsychological outcomes were assessed for 21 children post-LTx, with a median age (interquartile range) at the time of transplant of 11.52 (6.89, 14.12) years. Eleven children completed pre- and post-transplant assessments and within this group, improvements for verbal learning (P = .02), aspects of mood, behavior, and adaptive functioning were observed over time (all P < .05). Post-transplant whole group analysis suggested age-appropriate abilities across most cognitive domains, with a relative weakness for executive functioning. Emotional or behavioral difficulties were not endorsed by caregivers. Across pulmonary diagnoses, higher levels of emotional, behavioral, and executive functioning difficulty were reported in the non-CF group (all P < .05). CONCLUSIONS: Overall, LTx has a positive impact on cognitive functioning, particularly learning, adaptive functioning, mood, and behavior. Children transplanted for non-CF related diseases demonstrated greater challenges, highlighting the need for targeted assessments and interventions across the transplant process to support the complex needs of this population.