2022 International Consensus on Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care Science With Treatment Recommendations: Summary From the Basic Life Support; Advanced Life Support; Pediatric Life Support; Neonatal Life Support; Education, Implementation, and Teams; and First Aid Task Forces.

This is the sixth annual summary of the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation International Consensus on Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care Science With Treatment Recommendations. This summary addresses the most recently published resuscitation evidence reviewed by International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation Task Force science experts. Topics covered by systematic reviews include cardiopulmonary resuscitation during transport; approach to resuscitation after drowning; passive ventilation; minimizing pauses during cardiopulmonary resuscitation; temperature management after cardiac arrest; use of diagnostic point-of-care ultrasound during cardiac arrest; use of vasopressin and corticosteroids during cardiac arrest; coronary angiography after cardiac arrest; public-access defibrillation devices for children; pediatric early warning systems; maintaining normal temperature immediately after birth; suctioning of amniotic fluid at birth; tactile stimulation for resuscitation immediately after birth; use of continuous positive airway pressure for respiratory distress at term birth; respiratory and heart rate monitoring in the delivery room; supraglottic airway use in neonates; prearrest prediction of in-hospital cardiac arrest mortality; basic life support training for likely rescuers of high-risk populations; effect of resuscitation team training; blended learning for life support training; training and recertification for resuscitation instructors; and recovery position for maintenance of breathing and prevention of cardiac arrest. Members from 6 task forces have assessed, discussed, and debated the quality of the evidence using Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation criteria and generated consensus treatment recommendations. Insights into the deliberations of the task forces are provided in the Justification and Evidence-to-Decision Framework Highlights sections, and priority knowledge gaps for future research are listed.

2022 International Consensus on Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care Science With Treatment Recommendations: Summary From the Basic Life Support; Advanced Life Support; Pediatric Life Support; Neonatal Life Support; Education, Implementation, and Teams; and First Aid Task Forces.

This is the sixth annual summary of the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation International Consensus on Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care Science With Treatment Recommendations. This summary addresses the most recently published resuscitation evidence reviewed by International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation Task Force science experts. Topics covered by systematic reviews include cardiopulmonary resuscitation during transport; approach to resuscitation after drowning; passive ventilation; minimizing pauses during cardiopulmonary resuscitation; temperature management after cardiac arrest; use of diagnostic point-of-care ultrasound during cardiac arrest; use of vasopressin and corticosteroids during cardiac arrest; coronary angiography after cardiac arrest; public-access defibrillation devices for children; pediatric early warning systems; maintaining normal temperature immediately after birth; suctioning of amniotic fluid at birth; tactile stimulation for resuscitation immediately after birth; use of continuous positive airway pressure for respiratory distress at term birth; respiratory and heart rate monitoring in the delivery room; supraglottic airway use in neonates; prearrest prediction of in-hospital cardiac arrest mortality; basic life support training for likely rescuers of high-risk populations; effect of resuscitation team training; blended learning for life support training; training and recertification for resuscitation instructors; and recovery position for maintenance of breathing and prevention of cardiac arrest. Members from 6 task forces have assessed, discussed, and debated the quality of the evidence using Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation criteria and generated consensus treatment recommendations. Insights into the deliberations of the task forces are provided in the Justification and Evidence-to-Decision Framework Highlights sections, and priority knowledge gaps for future research are listed.

2022 International Consensus on Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care Science With Treatment Recommendations: Summary From the Basic Life Support; Advanced Life Support; Pediatric Life Support; Neonatal Life Support; Education, Implementation, and Teams; and First Aid Task Forces.

This is the sixth annual summary of the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation International Consensus on Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care Science With Treatment Recommendations. This summary addresses the most recently published resuscitation evidence reviewed by International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation Task Force science experts. Topics covered by systematic reviews include cardiopulmonary resuscitation during transport; approach to resuscitation after drowning; passive ventilation; minimising pauses during cardiopulmonary resuscitation; temperature management after cardiac arrest; use of diagnostic point-of-care ultrasound during cardiac arrest; use of vasopressin and corticosteroids during cardiac arrest; coronary angiography after cardiac arrest; public-access defibrillation devices for children; pediatric early warning systems; maintaining normal temperature immediately after birth; suctioning of amniotic fluid at birth; tactile stimulation for resuscitation immediately after birth; use of continuous positive airway pressure for respiratory distress at term birth; respiratory and heart rate monitoring in the delivery room; supraglottic airway use in neonates; prearrest prediction of in-hospital cardiac arrest mortality; basic life support training for likely rescuers of high-risk populations; effect of resuscitation team training; blended learning for life support training; training and recertification for resuscitation instructors; and recovery position for maintenance of breathing and prevention of cardiac arrest. Members from 6 task forces have assessed, discussed, and debated the quality of the evidence using Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation criteria and generated consensus treatment recommendations. Insights into the deliberations of the task forces are provided in the Justification and Evidence-to-Decision Framework Highlights sections, and priority knowledge gaps for future research are listed.

The recovery position for maintenance of adequate ventilation and the prevention of cardiac arrest: A systematic review.

Aim: To conduct a systematic review of the use of the recovery position in adults and children with non-traumatic decreased levels of responsiveness changes outcomes in comparison with other positioning strategies. Methods: We searched Medline (Ovid), Embase, Cochrane Library, CINAHL, medRxiv and Google Scholar from inception to 15 March 2021 for studies involving adults and children in an out-of-hospital, first aid setting who had reduced levels of responsiveness of non-traumatic aetiology but did not require resuscitative interventions. We used the ROBINS-I tool to assess risk of bias and GRADE methodology to determine the certainty of evidence. Results: Of 17,947 citations retrieved, three prospective observational studies and four case series were included. The prone and semi-recumbent positions were associated with a decreased rate of suspected aspiration pneumonia in acute poisoning. Use of the recovery position in paediatric patients with decreased levels of responsiveness was associated with a deceased admission rate and the prone position was the position most commonly associated with sudden unexpected death in epilepsy. High risk of bias, imprecision and indirectness of evidence limited our ability to perform pooled analyses. Conclusion: We identified a limited number of observational studies and case series comparing outcomes following use of the recovery position with outcomes when other patient positions were used. There was limited evidence to support or revise existing first aid guidance; however, greater emphasis on the initial assessment of responsiveness and need for CPR, as well as the detection and management of patient deterioration of a person identified with decreased responsiveness, is recommended.

Use of Cryotherapy for Managing Epistaxis in the First Aid Setting: A Scoping Review.

Epistaxis, or nosebleed, is bleeding from the nostril(s), nasal cavity, or nasopharynx. Anterior nasal bleeding is the most common location for spontaneous nontraumatic epistaxis and is commonly treated with manual compression to the nasal alae. Cryotherapy is also routinely recommended in conjunction with manual compression in the first aid and ED setting. We performed a scoping review on behalf of the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation First Aid Task Force guided by the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for scoping reviews (PRISMA-ScR). We searched Embase, Cochrane, and PubMed databases for published studies, without date restrictions, and we searched the gray literature using Google.com and Google Scholar. The websites of selected resuscitation councils were searched for guidelines relating to the management of epistaxis. References from included studies were hand-searched. Our published and gray literature search identified 1255 and 61,315 records, respectively. After removing duplicates and following selection criteria, we included 21 records from the published literature and 11 records from the gray literature. Our scoping review found that most of the published studies and website documents focused on managing nontraumatic epistaxis in the first aid setting. They provide recommendations for the use of cryotherapy based on expert opinion or indirect evidence extrapolated from cryotherapy-associated changes in nasal submucosal temperature, nasal blood flow, and nasal blood volume in healthy subjects (three studies). We did not identify any prospective, randomized trials comparing the efficacy of cryotherapy as an intervention for nontraumatic epistaxis in the first aid setting. The limited literature identified in this scoping review does not support the development of a systematic review but highlights the need for future research to better understand the role of cryotherapy in the first aid setting.

[Cardiac arrest under special circumstances]. / Kreislaufstillstand unter besonderen Umständen: Leitlinien des European Resuscitation Council 2021.

These guidelines of the European Resuscitation Council (ERC) Cardiac Arrest under Special Circumstances are based on the 2020 International Consensus on Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation Science with Treatment Recommendations. This section provides guidelines on the modifications required for basic and advanced life support for the prevention and treatment of cardiac arrest under special circumstances; in particular, specific causes (hypoxia, trauma, anaphylaxis, sepsis, hypo-/hyperkalaemia and other electrolyte disorders, hypothermia, avalanche, hyperthermia and malignant hyperthermia, pulmonary embolism, coronary thrombosis, cardiac tamponade, tension pneumothorax, toxic agents), specific settings (operating room, cardiac surgery, cardiac catheterization laboratory, dialysis unit, dental clinics, transportation [in-flight, cruise ships], sport, drowning, mass casualty incidents), and specific patient groups (asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, neurological disease, morbid obesity, pregnancy).

Appropriate Tourniquet Types in the Pediatric Population: A Systematic Review.

Trauma is the leading cause of mortality in those aged 1-19, with hemorrhage accounting for up to 40% of all trauma deaths. Manufactured tourniquets are recommended for the control of life-threatening extremity hemorrhage in adults but their use in the pediatric population requires further investigation. We performed a systematic review to evaluate the most appropriate tourniquet design for use in the pediatric population. A literature search of Embase and the Cochran databases of trials and systematic reviews on October 1, 2020 identified 454 unique references, of which 15 were included for full-text screening. Two single-arm observational studies with a high risk of bias evaluated the use of windlass tourniquets in the pediatric population (73 patients, age 2-16 years). The certainty of the evidence was very low. In both studies, conducted on uninjured extremities, the use of a manufactured windlass tourniquet, specifically the Combat Application Tourniquet (C-A-T®) Generation 7, led to the cessation of Doppler detected pulses in 71/71 (100%) of upper extremities and 69/73 (94.5%) of lower extremities. Of the four failures, one participant withdrew due to pain and three tourniquet applications failed to occlude pulses after three turns of the windlass. No controls were used for comparison. In conclusion, two observational studies demonstrated that windlass tourniquets were able to abolish distal pulses in children as young as two years of age and with a minimum limb circumference of 13 cm. These preliminary findings may be helpful for organizations in the creation of guidelines for the management of life-threatening extremity bleeding in children.

European Resuscitation Council Guidelines 2021: Cardiac arrest in special circumstances.

These European Resuscitation Council (ERC) Cardiac Arrest in Special Circumstances guidelines are based on the 2020 International Consensus on Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation Science with Treatment Recommendations. This section provides guidelines on the modifications required to basic and advanced life support for the prevention and treatment of cardiac arrest in special circumstances; specifically special causes (hypoxia, trauma, anaphylaxis, sepsis, hypo/hyperkalaemia and other electrolyte disorders, hypothermia, avalanche, hyperthermia and malignant hyperthermia, pulmonary embolism, coronary thrombosis, cardiac tamponade, tension pneumothorax, toxic agents), special settings (operating room, cardiac surgery, catheter laboratory, dialysis unit, dental clinics, transportation (in-flight, cruise ships), sport, drowning, mass casualty incidents), and special patient groups (asthma and COPD, neurological disease, obesity, pregnancy).

European Resuscitation Council Guidelines 2021: First aid.

The European Resuscitation Council has produced these first aid guidelines, which are based on the 2020 International Consensus on Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation Science with Treatment Recommendations. The topics include the first aid management of emergency medicine and trauma. For medical emergencies the following content is covered: recovery position, optimal positioning for shock, bronchodilator administration for asthma, recognition of stroke, early aspirin for chest pain, second dose of adrenaline for anaphylaxis, management of hypoglycaemia, oral rehydration solutions for treating exertion-related dehydration, management of heat stroke by cooling, supplemental oxygen in acute stroke, and presyncope. For trauma related emergencies the following topics are covered: control of life-threatening bleeding, management of open chest wounds, cervical spine motion restriction and stabilisation, recognition of concussion, cooling of thermal burns, dental avulsion, compression wrap for closed extremity joint injuries, straightening an angulated fracture, and eye injury from chemical exposure.

Stroke Recognition for First Aid Providers: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

Aim To perform a systematic review of the literature on the effectiveness of existing stroke recognition scales used in a prehospital setting and suitable for use by first aid providers. The systematic review will be used to inform an update of international first aid guidelines. Methods We followed the Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions methodology and report results according to PRISMA guidelines. We searched Medline, Embase and CENTRAL on May 25, 2020 for studies of stroke recognition scales used by first aid providers, paramedics and nurses for adults with suspected acute stroke in a prehospital setting. Outcomes included change in time to treatment, initial recognition of stroke, survival and discharge with favorable neurologic status, and increased layperson recognition of the signs of stroke. Two investigators reviewed abstracts, extracted and assessed the data for risk of bias. The certainty of evidence was evaluated using GRADE methodology. Results We included 24 observational studies with 10,446 patients evaluating 10 stroke scales (SS). All evidence was of moderate to very low certainty. Use of the Kurashiki Prehospital SS (KPSS), Ontario Prehospital SS (OPSS) and Face Arm Speech Time SS (FAST) was associated with an increased number of suspected stroke patients arriving to a hospital within three hours and, for OPSS, a higher rate of thrombolytic therapy. The KPSS was associated with a decreased time from symptom onset to hospital arrival. Use of FAST Emergency Response (FASTER) was associated with decreased time from door to tomography and from symptom onset to treatment. The Los Angeles Prehospital Stroke Scale (LAPSS) was associated with an increased number of correct initial diagnoses. Meta-analysis found the summary estimate sensitivity of four scales ranged from 0.78 to 0.86. The FAST and Cincinnati Prehospital Stroke Scale (CPSS) were found to have a summary estimated sensitivity of 0.86, 95% CI [0.69-0.94] and 0.81, 95% CI [0.70-0.89], respectively. Conclusion Stroke recognition scales used in the prehospital first aid setting improves the recognition and diagnosis of stroke, thereby aiding the emergency services to triage stroke victims directly down an appropriate stroke care pathway. Of those prehospital scales evaluated by more than a single study, FAST and Melbourne Ambulance Stroke Screen (MASS) were found to be the most sensitive for stroke recognition, while the CPSS had higher specificity. When blood glucose cannot be measured, the simplicity of FAST and CPSS makes these particular stroke scales appropriate for non-medical first aid providers.

Second Dose of Epinephrine for Anaphylaxis in the First Aid Setting: A Scoping Review.

Anaphylaxis is a life-threatening hypersensitivity reaction where rapid, early administration of epinephrine (adrenaline) can be lifesaving in the first aid setting. There are instances where a single dose of epinephrine does not relieve symptoms and a second dose may be required to further mitigate symptoms and preserve life. We performed a scoping review as part of an update to a previously conducted International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation First Aid Task Force (ILCOR) review. PubMed and Embase were searched using the strategy from the 2015 ILCOR review (dates January 1, 2015 to October 22, 2019) and a review of the grey literature (all dates up to November 18, 2019) was performed to identify data on the requirement, use, and effectiveness of a second dose of epinephrine. Each search was rerun on June 26, 2020. We included all human studies of adults and children with an English abstract. Critical outcomes included resolution of symptoms, adverse effects, and complications of second dosing of epinephrine in the treatment of acute anaphylaxis. Included studies are presented descriptively. Our updated search identified 909 potential sources, 890 from the published literature and 19 from the grey literature. After full text review, two studies met our eligibility criteria (Campbell et al. and Akari et al.). For the outcome of resolution of symptoms, both studies found that two or more doses of epinephrine were required in 8% of 582 patients and 28% of 18 patients, respectively, with anaphylaxis requiring treatment with epinephrine. The other a priori outcomes were not reported. This scoping review identified limited evidence regarding the use of a second dose of epinephrine for anaphylaxis in the first aid setting, however, due to the potential benefit, it is reasonable to administer a second dose when symptoms of severe anaphylaxis fail to resolve following an initial dose. Given the potential mortality associated with anaphylaxis, further research is needed to better identify individuals who may benefit from a second dose of epinephrine.

2020 International Consensus on First Aid Science With Treatment Recommendations.

This is the summary publication of the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation's 2020 International Consensus on First Aid Science With Treatment Recommendations. It addresses the most recent published evidence reviewed by the First Aid Task Force science experts. This summary addresses the topics of first aid methods of glucose administration for hypoglycemia; techniques for cooling of exertional hyperthermia and heatstroke; recognition of acute stroke; the use of supplementary oxygen in acute stroke; early or first aid use of aspirin for chest pain; control of life-threatening bleeding through the use of tourniquets, hemostatic dressings, direct pressure, or pressure devices; the use of a compression wrap for closed extremity joint injuries; and temporary storage of an avulsed tooth. Additional summaries of scoping reviews are presented for the use of a recovery position, recognition of a concussion, and 6 other first aid topics. The First Aid Task Force has assessed, discussed, and debated the certainty of evidence on the basis of Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation criteria and present their consensus treatment recommendations with evidence-to-decision highlights and identified priority knowledge gaps for future research.

2020 International Consensus on First Aid Science With Treatment Recommendations.

This is the summary publication of the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation's 2020 International Consensus on First Aid Science With Treatment Recommendations. It addresses the most recent published evidence reviewed by the First Aid Task Force science experts. This summary addresses the topics of first aid methods of glucose administration for hypoglycemia; techniques for cooling of exertional hyperthermia and heatstroke; recognition of acute stroke; the use of supplementary oxygen in acute stroke; early or first aid use of aspirin for chest pain; control of life- threatening bleeding through the use of tourniquets, haemostatic dressings, direct pressure, or pressure devices; the use of a compression wrap for closed extremity joint injuries; and temporary storage of an avulsed tooth. Additional summaries of scoping reviews are presented for the use of a recovery position, recognition of a concussion, and 6 other first aid topics. The First Aid Task Force has assessed, discussed, and debated the certainty of evidence on the basis of Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation criteria and present their consensus treatment recommendations with evidence-to-decision highlights and identified priority knowledge gaps for future research. The 2020 International Consensus on Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR) and Emergency Cardiovascular Care (ECC) Science With Treatment Recommendations (CoSTR) is the fourth in a series of annual summary publications from the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation (ILCOR). This 2020 CoSTR for first aid includes new topics addressed by systematic reviews performed within the past 12 months. It also includes updates of the first aid treatment recommendations published from 2010 through 2019 that are based on additional evidence evaluations and updates. As a result, this 2020 CoSTR for first aid represents the most comprehensive update since 2010.

Storage of an avulsed tooth prior to replantation: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND/AIM: It is crucial to store an avulsed tooth appropriately to preserve the viability of the periodontal ligament cells prior to replantation. The aim of this systematic review was to identify the best available evidence for the effectiveness of any technique available to laypeople for storing an avulsed tooth compared with storage in milk or saliva. METHODS: The following databases were searched (September 2019): Cochrane Library, MEDLINE, and Embase. Two reviewers independently considered trial eligibility, then extracted and analyzed data, and assessed the risk of bias. The certainty of the body of evidence was appraised according to the GRADE methodology. RESULTS: Out of 4118 references, 33 studies were included and reported 23 comparisons of which 10 were synthesized in a meta-analysis. The limited evidence available favors storing an avulsed tooth in Hank's balanced salt solution (pooled SMD 2.47, 95% CI [1.59;3.34], P < .00001), propolis solution (pooled SMD 1.73, 95% CI [1.12;2.33], P < .00001), oral rehydration salts (pooled SMD 4.16, 95% CI [2.10;6.23], P < .0001), rice water, and cling film compared with storage in milk. The cell viability rate was significantly lower in teeth stored in saline solutions (pooled SMD -4.35, 95% CI [-7.55;-1.14], P = .008), tap water, buttermilk, castor oil, GC Tooth Mousse, and turmeric extract than those stored in milk. There is insufficient evidence to recommend for or against temporary storage of an avulsed tooth in saliva compared with alternative solutions. The certainty of evidence was considered low to very low due to limitations in study design, indirect study populations and outcome measures, and imprecision. CONCLUSION: Although milk was shown to extend the periodontal ligament cell viability before replantation compared with saline or tap water, the following media have also demonstrated efficacy at preserving the cell viability: Hank's balanced salt solution, propolis, oral rehydration salts, rice water, and cling film.

Early or First Aid Administration Versus Late or In-hospital Administration of Aspirin for Non-traumatic Adult Chest Pain: A Systematic Review.

Chest pain is a common symptom of acute coronary syndrome, including myocardial infarction (MI). Treatment with antiplatelet agents, such as aspirin, improves survival, although the ideal dose is uncertain. It is unknown if outcomes can be improved by giving aspirin early in the course of MI as part of the first-aid management as opposed to late or in-hospital administration. We searched the Medline, Embase, and Cochrane databases and used Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE) and Risk of Bias in Non-randomized Studies of Interventions (ROBINS-I) for determining the certainty of evidence. We included studies in adults with non-traumatic chest pain, where aspirin was administered early (within two hours) following the onset of chest pain as part of first-aid management as compared with late or in-hospital administration (The International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO) registration number: CDR153316). From 1470 references, we included three studies (one randomized controlled trial (RCT) and two non-RCTs). Early administration (median 1.6 hours or pre-hospital) was associated with increased survival as compared with late administration (median 3.5 hours or in-hospital) at seven days; risk ratio (RR) 1.04 (95% CI 1.03-1.06), 30 days RR 1.05 (95% 1.02-1.07), and one-year RR 1.06 (95% CI1.03-1.10). The evidence is of very low certainty due to limitations in study design and the imprecision of the evidence. This systematic review would suggest that the early or first-aid administration of aspirin to adults with non-traumatic chest pain improves survival as compared with late or in-hospital administration.

First aid glucose administration routes for symptomatic hypoglycaemia.

BACKGROUND: Hypoglycaemia is a common occurrence in people with diabetes but can also result from an imbalance in glucose homeostasis in the absence of diabetes. The best enteral route for glucose administration for suspected hypoglycaemia in a first aid situation is unknown. OBJECTIVES: To assess the effects of first aid glucose administration by any route appropriate for use by first-aid providers (buccal, sublingual, oral, rectal) for symptomatic hypoglycaemia. SEARCH METHODS: We searched CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase, CINAHL as well as grey literature (records identified in the WHO ICTRP Search Portal, ClinicalTrials.gov and the EU Clinical Trials Register) up to July 2018. We searched reference lists of included studies retrieved by the above searches. SELECTION CRITERIA: We included studies involving adults and children with documented or suspected hypoglycaemia as well as healthy volunteers, in which glucose was administered by any enteral route appropriate for use by first-aid providers. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Two review authors independently selected trials, assessed risk of bias, extracted data and evaluated trials for overall certainty of the evidence using the GRADE instrument. We used the Cochrane 'Risk of bias' tool to assess the risk of bias in the randomised controlled trials (RCTs), and the 'risk of bias In non-randomised studies of interventions' (ROBINS-I) tool, in addition to the Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions recommendations on cross-over studies, for the non-RCTs. We reported continuous outcomes as mean differences (MD) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) and dichotomous outcomes as risk ratios (RR) with 95% CIs. All data on glucose concentrations were converted to mg/dL. We contacted authors of included studies to obtain missing data. MAIN RESULTS: From 6394 references, we included four studies evaluating 77 participants, including two RCTs, studying children and adults with hypoglycaemia, respectively, and two non-RCTs with healthy volunteers. The studies included three different routes of glucose administration (sublingual, buccal and a combination of oral and buccal administration). All studies had a high risk of bias in one or more 'Risk of bias' domain.Glucose administration by the sublingual route, in the form of table sugar under the tongue, resulted in a higher blood glucose concentration after 20 minutes compared with the oral route in the very specific setting of children with hypoglycaemia and symptoms of concomitant malaria or respiratory tract infection (MD 17 mg/dL, 95% CI 4.4 to 29.6; P = 0.008; 1 study; 42 participants; very low-quality evidence). Resolution of hypoglycaemia at 80 minutes may favour sublingual administration (RR 2.10, 95% CI 1.24 to 3.54; P = 0.006; 1 study; 42 participants; very low-certainty evidence), but no substantial difference could be demonstrated at 20 minutes (RR 1.26, 95% CI 0.91 to 1.74; P = 0.16; 1 study; 42 participants; very low-certainty evidence). A decrease in the time to resolution of hypoglycaemia was found in favour of sublingual administration (MD -51.5 min, 95% CI -58 to -45; P < 0.001; 1 study; 42 participants; very low-certainty evidence). No adverse events were reported in either group. No data were available for resolution of symptoms and time to resolution of symptoms, and treatment delay.Glucose administered by the buccal route in one study resulted in a lower plasma glucose concentration after 20 minutes compared with oral administration (MD -14.4 mg/dL, 95% CI -17.5 to -11.4 for an imputed within-participants correlation coefficient of 0.9; P < 0.001; 1 trial; 16 participants; very low-quality evidence). In another study there were fewer participants with increased blood glucose at 20 minutes favouring oral glucose (RR 0.07, 95% CI 0.00 to 0.98; P = 0.05; 1 study; 7 participants; very low-certainty evidence). No data were available for resolution of symptoms and time to resolution of symptoms, resolution of hypoglycaemia and time to resolution of hypoglycaemia, adverse events, and treatment delay.For the combined oral and buccal mucosal route (in the form of a dextrose gel) the MD was -15.3 mg/dL, 95%CI -33.6 to 3; P = 0.09; 1 study; 18 participants; very low-quality evidence . No improvement was identified for either route in the resolution of symptoms at 20 minutes or less following glucose administration (RR 0.36, 95% CI 0.12 to 1.14; P = 0.08; 1 study; 18 participants; very low-certainty evidence). No data were available for time to resolution of symptoms, resolution of hypoglycaemia and time to resolution of hypoglycaemia, adverse events, and treatment delay. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: When providing first aid to individuals with hypoglycaemia, oral glucose administration results in a higher blood glucose concentrations after 20 minutes when compared with buccal administration of glucose. A difference in plasma glucose concentration could not be demonstrated, when administering a dextrose gel, defined as "a combined oral and buccal mucosal route" compared to oral administration of a glucose tablet or solution. In the specific population of children with concomitant malaria and respiratory illness, sublingual sugar results in a higher blood glucose concentration after 20 minutes when compared with oral administration.These results need to be interpreted cautiously because our confidence in the body of evidence is very low due to the low number of participants and studies as well as methodological deficiencies in the included studies.

Management of Pain in Elite Athletes: Identified Gaps in Knowledge and Future Research Directions.

OBJECTIVE: For elite athletes to train and compete at peak performance levels, it is necessary to manage their pain efficiently and effectively. A recent consensus meeting on the management of pain in elite athletes concluded that there are many gaps in the current knowledge and that further information and research is required. This article presents the crystallization of these acknowledged gaps in knowledge. DATA SOURCES: Information was gathered from a wide variety of published scientific sources that were reviewed at the consensus meeting and the gaps in knowledge identified. MAIN RESULTS: Gaps have been identified in the epidemiology of analgesic use, the management of pain associated with minor injuries, and the field of play management of pain for athletes with major injuries. From a pharmacological perspective, there is a lack of information on the prescribing of opioid medications in elite athletes and more data are required on the use of local anesthetics injections, corticosteroids, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs during training and in competition. Pain management strategies for the general population are widely available, but there are few for the elite sporting population and virtually none for elite athletes with a disability. More research is also needed in assessing cognitive-behavior therapies in improving specific outcomes and also into the new process of psychologically informed physiotherapy. A key issue is the paucity of data relating to incidence or prevalence of persistent pain and how this relates to persistent dysfunction, exercise performance, and physiological function in later life. CONCLUSIONS: The identification of the gaps in knowledge in the management of pain in elite athletes will provide a unified direction for the retrieval of information and further research that will provide reassurance, speed return to active sport, and benefit performance.