Feature Reviews in Pharmaceutical Technology.

We are excited to present the Special Issue, "Feature Reviews in Pharmaceutical Technology", aiming to highlight exciting developments in pharmaceutical technologies [...].

Carrageenan-Based Crowding and Confinement Combination Approach to Increase Collagen Deposition for In Vitro Tissue Development.

Connective tissue models grown from cell monolayers can be instrumental in a variety of biomedical fields such as drug screening, wound healing, and regenerative engineering. However, while connective tissues contain abundant fibrillar collagen, achieving a sufficient assembly and retention of fibrillar collagen in vitro is challenging. Unlike the dilute cell culture environment, the body's environment is characterized by a high density of soluble macromolecules (crowding) and macromolecular networks (confinement), which contribute to extracellular matrix (ECM) assembly in vivo. Consequently, macromolecular crowding (MMC) has been successfully used to enhance the processing of type I procollagen, leading to significant increases in fibrillar collagen assembly and accumulation during in vitro culture of a variety of cell types. In this study, we developed a combination approach using a carrageenan hydrogel, which released soluble macromolecules and served as a confinement barrier. We first evaluated the local carrageenan release and then confirmed the effectiveness of this combination approach on collagen accumulation by the human MG-63 bone cell line. Additionally, computational modeling of oxygen and glucose transport within the culture system showed no negative effects of the hydrogel and its releasates on cell viability.

Laponite-Based Nanocomposite Hydrogels for Drug Delivery Applications.

Hydrogels are widely used for therapeutic delivery applications due to their biocompatibility, biodegradability, and ability to control release kinetics by tuning swelling and mechanical properties. However, their clinical utility is hampered by unfavorable pharmacokinetic properties, including high initial burst release and difficulty in achieving prolonged release, especially for small molecules (<500 Da). The incorporation of nanomaterials within hydrogels has emerged as viable option as a method to trap therapeutics within the hydrogel and sustain release kinetics. Specifically, two-dimensional nanosilicate particles offer a plethora of beneficial characteristics, including dually charged surfaces, degradability, and enhanced mechanical properties within hydrogels. The nanosilicate-hydrogel composite system offers benefits not obtainable by just one component, highlighting the need for detail characterization of these nanocomposite hydrogels. This review focuses on Laponite, a disc-shaped nanosilicate with diameter of 30 nm and thickness of 1 nm. The benefits of using Laponite within hydrogels are explored, as well as examples of Laponite-hydrogel composites currently being investigated for their ability to prolong the release of small molecules and macromolecules such as proteins. Future work will further characterize the interplay between nanosilicates, hydrogel polymer, and encapsulated therapeutics, and how each of these components affect release kinetics and mechanical properties.

Adsorption and Sustained Delivery of Small Molecules from Nanosilicate Hydrogel Composites.

Two-dimensional nanosilicate particles (NS) have shown promise for the prolonged release of small-molecule therapeutics while minimizing burst release. When incorporated in a hydrogel, the high surface area and charge of NS enable electrostatic adsorption and/or intercalation of therapeutics, providing a lever to localize and control release. However, little is known about the physio-chemical interplay between the hydrogel, NS, and encapsulated small molecules. Here, we fabricated polyethylene glycol (PEG)-NS hydrogels for the release of model small molecules such as acridine orange (AO). We then elucidated the effect of NS concentration, NS/AO incubation time, and the ability of NS to freely associate with AO on hydrogel properties and AO release profiles. Overall, NS incorporation increased the hydrogel stiffness and decreased swelling and mesh size. When individual NS particles were embedded within the hydrogel, a 70-fold decrease in AO release was observed compared to PEG-only hydrogels, due to adsorption of AO onto NS surfaces. When NS was pre-incubated and complexed with AO prior to hydrogel encapsulation, a >9000-fold decrease in AO release was observed due to intercalation of AO between NS layers. Similar results were observed for other small molecules. Our results show the potential for use of these nanocomposite hydrogels for the tunable, long-term release of small molecules.

Hydrogel-Based Spheroid Models of Glioblastoma for Drug Screening Applications.

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most aggressive brain tumor, with median patient survival of 12-15 months even after treatment. To facilitate basic research as well as treatment development, bioengineered GBM models that adequately recapitulate aspects of the in vivo tumor microenvironment are greatly needed. Multicellular spheroids are a well-accepted model in tumor biology as well as drug screening because they recapitulate many of the solid tumor characteristics, such as hypoxic core and cell-cell communication. There are multiple approaches for growing GBM cells into tumor spheroids - non-adherent plastic dishes, hanging drop, bioreactors, and hydrogels, amongst others. Suspension spheroid models offer ease of growth, uniformity, and overall lower cost, but neglect the cell-matrix interactions, while hydrogel-based spheroids capture cell-matrix interactions and allow co-cultures with stromal cells. In this review, we summarize various approaches to fabricate GBM spheroid models as well as GBM spheroid characteristics and chemotherapeutic responsiveness as a function of hydrogel matrix encapsulation and properties, in order to advance therapies.

Development of Nanosilicate-Hydrogel Composites for Sustained Delivery of Charged Biopharmaceutics.

Nanocomposite hydrogels containing two-dimensional nanosilicates (NS) have emerged as a new technology for the prolonged delivery of biopharmaceuticals. However, little is known about the physical-chemical properties governing the interaction between NS and proteins and the release profiles of NS-protein complexes in comparison to traditional poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) hydrogel technologies. To fill this gap in knowledge, we fabricated a nanocomposite hydrogel composed of PEG and laponite and identified simple but effective experimental conditions to obtain sustained protein release, up to 23 times slower as compared to traditional PEG hydrogels, as determined by bulk release experiments and fluorescence correlation spectroscopy. Slowed protein release was attributed to the formation of NS-protein complexes, as NS-protein complex size was inversely correlated with protein diffusivity and release rates. While protein electrostatics, protein concentration, and incubation time were important variables to control protein-NS complex formation, we found that one of the most significant and less appreciated variable to obtain a sustained release of bioactive proteins was the buffer chosen for preparing the initial suspension of NS particles. The buffer was found to control the size of nanoparticles, the absorption potential, morphology, and stiffness of hydrogels. From these studies, we conclude that the PEG-laponite composite fabricated is a promising new platform for sustained delivery of positively charged protein therapeutics.

Micro-Clotting of Platelet-Rich Plasma Upon Loading in Hydrogel Microspheres Leads to Prolonged Protein Release and Slower Microsphere Degradation.

Platelet-rich plasma (PRP) is an autologous blood product that contains a variety of growth factors (GFs) that are released upon platelet activation. Despite some therapeutic potential of PRP in vitro, in vivo data are not convincing. Bolus injection of PRP is cleared rapidly from the body diminishing its therapeutic efficacy. This highlights a need for a delivery vehicle for a sustained release of PRP to improve its therapeutic effect. In this study, we used microfluidics to fabricate biodegradable PRP-loaded polyethylene glycol (PEG) microspheres. PRP was incorporated into the microspheres as a lyophilized PRP powder either as is (powder PRP) or first solubilized and pre-clotted to remove clots (liquid PRP). A high PRP loading of 10% w/v was achieved for both PRP preparations. We characterized the properties of the resulting PRP-loaded PEG microspheres including swelling, modulus, degradation, and protein release as a function of PRP loading and preparation. Overall, loading powder PRP into the PEG microspheres significantly affected the properties of microspheres, with the most pronounced effect noted in degradation. We further determined that microsphere degradation in the presence of powder PRP was affected by platelet aggregation and clotting. Platelet aggregation did not prevent but prolonged sustained PRP release from the microspheres. The delivery system developed and characterized herein could be useful for the loading and releasing of PRP to promote tissue regeneration and wound healing or to suppress tissue degeneration in osteoarthritis, and intervertebral disc degeneration.

Cell Microencapsulation in Polyethylene Glycol Hydrogel Microspheres Using Electrohydrodynamic Spraying.

Microencapsulation of cells is beneficial for various biomedical applications, such as tissue regeneration and cell delivery. While a variety of techniques can be used to produce microspheres, electrohydrodynamic spraying (EHS) has shown promising results for the fabrication of cell-laden hydrogel microspheres in a wide range of sizes and in a relatively high-throughput manner. Here we describe an EHS technique for the fabrication of cell-laden polyethylene glycol (PEG) microspheres. We utilize mild hydrogel gelation chemistry and a combination of EHS parameters to allow for cell microencapsulation with high efficiency and viability. We also give examples on the effect of different EHS parameters such as inner diameter of the needle, voltage and flow rate on microsphere size and encapsulated cell viability.

Predicting Drug Release From Degradable Hydrogels Using Fluorescence Correlation Spectroscopy and Mathematical Modeling.

Predicting release from degradable hydrogels is challenging but highly valuable in a multitude of applications such as drug delivery and tissue engineering. In this study, we developed a simple mathematical and computational model that accounts for time-varying diffusivity and geometry to predict solute release profiles from degradable hydrogels. Our approach was to use time snapshots of diffusivity and hydrogel geometry data measured experimentally as inputs to a computational model which predicts release profile. We used two model proteins of varying molecular weights: bovine serum albumin (BSA; 66 kDa) and immunoglobulin G (IgG; 150 kDa). We used fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS) to determine protein diffusivity as a function of hydrogel degradation. We tracked changes in gel geometry over the same time period. Curve fits to the diffusivity and geometry data were used as inputs to the computational model to predict the protein release profiles from the degradable hydrogels. We validated the model using conventional bulk release experiments. Because we approached the hydrogel as a black box, the model is particularly valuable for hydrogel systems whose degradation mechanisms are not known or cannot be accurately modeled.

Templated Macroporous Polyethylene Glycol Hydrogels for Spheroid and Aggregate Cell Culture.

Macroporous cell-laden hydrogels have recently gained recognition for a wide range of biomedical and bioengineering applications. There are various approaches to create porosity in hydrogels, including lyophilization or foam formation. However, many do not allow a precise control over pore size or are not compatible with in situ cell encapsulation. Here, we developed novel templated macroporous hydrogels by encapsulating uniform degradable hydrogel microspheres produced via microfluidics into a hydrogel slab. The microspheres degraded completely leaving macropores behind. Microsphere degradation was dependent on the incubation medium, microsphere size, microsphere confinement in the hydrogel as well as cell encapsulation. Uniquely, the degradable microspheres were biocompatible and when laden with cells, the cells were deposited in the macropores upon microsphere degradation and formed multicellular aggregates. The hydrogel-encapsulated cell aggregates were used in a small drug screen to demonstrate the relevance of cell-matrix interactions for multicellular spheroid drug responsiveness. Hydrogel-grown spheroid cultures are increasingly important in applications such as in vitro tumor, hepatocellular, and neurosphere cultures and drug screening; hence, the templated cell aggregate-laden hydrogels described here would find utility in various applications.

Cell Attachment and Spreading on Carbon Nanotubes Is Facilitated by Integrin Binding.

Owing to their exceptional physical, chemical, and mechanical properties, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have been extensively studied for their effect on cellular behaviors. However, little is known about the process by which cells attach and spread on CNTs and the process for cell attachment and spreading on individual single-walled CNTs has not been studied. Cell adhesion and spreading is essential for cell communication and regulation and the mechanical interaction between cells and the underlying substrate can influence and control cell behavior and function. A limited number of studies have described different adhesion mechanisms, such as cellular process entanglements with multi-walled CNT aggregates or adhesion due to adsorption of serum proteins onto the nanotubes. Here, we hypothesized that cell attachment and spreading to both individual single-walled CNTs and multi-walled CNT aggregates is governed by the same mechanism. Specifically, we suggest that cell attachment and spreading on nanotubes is integrin-dependent and is facilitated by the adsorption of serum and cell-secreted adhesive proteins to the nanotubes.

Directed and enhanced neurite outgrowth following exogenous electrical stimulation on carbon nanotube-hydrogel composites.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this work was to test the synergistic effects of substrate stiffness, electro-conductivity, composition and electrical stimulation on the morphology, alignment and directional neurite outgrowth of neuron-like PC12 cells. The use of exogenous electrical stimulation has emerged as a promising new intervention to promote neural regeneration following injury. For critical gap size nerve injuries, a permissive biomaterial coupled to electrical stimulation may be needed to provide guidance and support for neurite outgrowth. Thus, the combinatorial effects of biomaterial composition and properties and exogenous electrical stimulation need interrogation to develop successful therapeutic interventions. Carefully designed in vitro models are ideally suited to perform such multidimensional detailed studies. APPROACH: We assembled a simple electrical stimulation device to deliver uniform electrical current with minimum voltage field variation through a hydrogel. We used polyacrylamide (PA), polyethylene glycol (PEG), and multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT)-PEG nanocomposite hydrogels of varying stiffness, resistivity and MWCNT concentration. Cells were seeded on the substrates for 24 h, stimulated for 1 h at 30 V m-1 DC, and then cultured for additional 24 h. Non-stimulated cells were used as controls. To induce neurite outgrowth, cells were primed with nerve growth factor (100 ng ml-1). MAIN RESULTS: For all substrates tested, electrical stimulation induced neurite alignment at 60-90° angle to the applied current. It also increased total neurite outgrowth by 18%-49% and mean neurite length by 20%-46% (increase dependent on the underlying substrate) compared to non-stimulated cells. The nanocomposite composed of 20% w/v PEG and 0.1% w/v MWCNTs resulted in the highest total neurite outgrowth and mean neurite length, which were further significantly enhanced by electrical stimulation by 2-fold and 1.8-fold, respectively. SIGNIFICANCE: Our results indicate that nanocomposites, where carbon nanotubes have been added to hydrogel substrates, in combination with electrical stimulation provided improved conditions for neural growth and regeneration.

Morphological adaptations in breast cancer cells as a function of prolonged passaging on compliant substrates.

Standard tissue culture practices involve propagating cells on tissue culture polystyrene (TCP) dishes, which are flat, 2-dimensional (2D) and orders of magnitude stiffer than most tissues in the body. Such simplified conditions lead to phenotypical cell changes and altered cell behaviors. Hence, much research has been focused on developing novel biomaterials and culture conditions that more closely emulate in vivo cell microenvironments. In particular, biomaterial stiffness has emerged as a key property that greatly affects cell behaviors such as adhesion, morphology, proliferation and motility among others. Here we ask whether cells that have been conditioned to TCP, would still show significant dependence on substrate stiffness if they are first pre-adapted to a more physiologically relevant environment. We used two commonly utilized breast cancer cell lines, namely MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7, and examined the effect of prolonged cell culturing on polyacrylamide substrates of varying compliance. We followed changes in cell adhesion, proliferation, shape factor, spreading area and spreading rate. After pre-adaptation, we noted diminished differences in cell behaviors when comparing between soft (1 kPa) and stiff (103 kPa) gels as well as rigid TCP control. Prolonged culturing of cells on complaint substrates further influenced responses of pre-adapted cells when transferred back to TCP. Our results have implications for the study of stiffness-dependent cell behaviors and indicate that cell pre-adaptation to the substrate needs consideration.

A Two-Step Method for Transferring Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes onto a Hydrogel Substrate.

Carbon nanotube (CNT)-hydrogel nanocomposites are beneficial for various biomedical applications, such as nerve regeneration, tissue engineering, sensing, or implant coatings. Still, there are impediments to developing nanocomposites, including attaining a homogeneous CNT-polymer dispersion or patterning CNTs on hydrogels. While few approaches have been reported for patterning CNTs on polymeric substrates, these methods include high temperature, high vacuum or utilize a sacrificial layer and, hence, are incompatible with hydrogels as they lead to irreversible collapse in hydrogel structure. In this study, a novel two-step method is designed to transfer CNTs onto hydrogels. First, dense CNTs are grown on quartz substrates. Subsequently, hydrogel solutions are deposited on the quartz-grown CNTs. Upon gelation, the hydrogel with transferred CNTs is peeled from the quartz. Successful transfer is confirmed by scanning electron microscopy and indirectly by cell attachment. The efficient transfer is attributed to π-interactions pregelation between the polymers in solution and the CNTs.

Polymeric particle-mediated molecular therapies to treat spinal cord injury.

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a physically and psychologically debilitating condition that mainly affects young, healthy males who are at the peak of their personal and professional development. SCI damages axons and disrupts myelination, which interrupts sensory and motor neuronal function. Current treatments are mostly palliative, aimed at reducing further damage and pain, but do not provide a cure. Polymeric particles have shown tremendous promise to provide patients with effective treatments that can bring partial or full functional recovery. Their unique properties can facilitate delivery of therapeutic agents to the injury site, provide protection from the host immunity or provide platforms to stimulate the regeneration of damaged axons. This review highlights the current benefits and challenges of the use of polymeric particles to control the release of molecular therapeutics as potential strategies for SCI treatment.

Injectable Polyethylene Glycol Hydrogel for Islet Encapsulation: an in vitro and in vivo Characterization.

An injection of hydrogel-encapsulated islets that controls blood glucose levels over long term would provide a much needed alternative treatment for type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM). To this end, we tested the feasibility of using an injectable polyethylene glycol (PEG) hydrogel as a scaffold for islet encapsulation. Encapsulated islets cultured in vitro for 6 days showed excellent cell viability and released insulin with higher basal and stimulated insulin secretion than control islets. Host responses to PEG hydrogels were studied by injecting PEG hydrogels (no treatment and vehicle controls used) into the peritoneal cavities of B6D2F1 mice and monitoring alterations in body weight, food and water intake, and blood glucose levels. After 2 weeks, peritoneal cavity cells were harvested, followed by hydrogel retrieval, and extraction of spleens. Body weights, food and water intake, and blood glucose levels were unaltered in mice injected with hydrogels compared to no treatment and vehicle-injected control mice. Frozen sections of a hydrogel showed the presence of tissues and small number of immune cells surrounding the hydrogel but no cell infiltration into the hydrogel bulk. Spleen sizes were not significantly different under the experimental conditions. Peritoneal cavity cells were slightly higher in mice injected with hydrogels compared to control mice but no statistical difference between vehicle- and hydrogel-injected mice was noted. As an in vivo feasibility study, streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice were injected with vehicle or hydrogels containing 50 islets each into two sites, the peritoneal cavity and a subcutaneous site on the back. Transient control of blood glucose levels were observed in mice injected with hydrogels containing islets. In summary, we developed an injectable PEG hydrogel that supported islet function and survival in vitro and in vivo and elicited only a mild host response. Our work illustrates the feasibility of using injectable PEG hydrogels for islet encapsulation.

Homogenization Theory for the Prediction of Obstructed Solute Diffusivity in Macromolecular Solutions.

The study of diffusion in macromolecular solutions is important in many biomedical applications such as separations, drug delivery, and cell encapsulation, and key for many biological processes such as protein assembly and interstitial transport. Not surprisingly, multiple models for the a-priori prediction of diffusion in macromolecular environments have been proposed. However, most models include parameters that are not readily measurable, are specific to the polymer-solute-solvent system, or are fitted and do not have a physical meaning. Here, for the first time, we develop a homogenization theory framework for the prediction of effective solute diffusivity in macromolecular environments based on physical parameters that are easily measurable and not specific to the macromolecule-solute-solvent system. Homogenization theory is useful for situations where knowledge of fine-scale parameters is used to predict bulk system behavior. As a first approximation, we focus on a model where the solute is subjected to obstructed diffusion via stationary spherical obstacles. We find that the homogenization theory results agree well with computationally more expensive Monte Carlo simulations. Moreover, the homogenization theory agrees with effective diffusivities of a solute in dilute and semi-dilute polymer solutions measured using fluorescence correlation spectroscopy. Lastly, we provide a mathematical formula for the effective diffusivity in terms of a non-dimensional and easily measurable geometric system parameter.

Three-dimensional matrix stiffness and adhesive ligands affect cancer cell response to toxins.

There is an immediate need to develop highly predictive in vitro cell-based assays that provide reliable information on cancer drug efficacy and toxicity. Development of biomaterial-based three-dimensional (3D) cell culture models as drug screening platforms has recently gained much scientific interest as 3D cultures of cancer cells have been shown to more adequately mimic the in vivo tumor conditions. Moreover, it has been recognized that the biophysical and biochemical properties of the 3D microenvironment can play key roles in regulating various cancer cell fates, including their response to chemicals. In this study, we employed alginate-based scaffolds of varying mechanical stiffness and adhesive ligand presentation to further explore the role of 3D microenvironmental cues on glioblastoma cell response to cytotoxic compounds. Our experiments suggested the ability of both matrix stiffness and cell-matrix adhesions to strongly influence cell responses to toxins. Cells were found to be more susceptible to the toxins when cultured in softer matrices that emulated the stiffness of brain tissue. Furthermore, the effect of matrix stiffness on differential cell responses to toxins was negated by the presence of the adhesive ligand RGD, but regained when integrin-based cell-matrix interactions were inhibited. This study therefore indicates that both 3D matrix stiffness and cell-matrix adhesions are important parameters in the design of more predictive in vitro platforms for drug development and toxicity screening.

The role of matrix compliance on cell responses to drugs and toxins: towards predictive drug screening platforms.

Since the birth of tissue engineering, it has been redefined to include not only the development of tissues for clinical use, but also in vitro models for the study of tissue physiology and pathology. Great strides have been accomplished in the design of in vitro tissue models, yet one area in which they are underrepresented, but where they can have an immediate impact, is the development of platforms for drug screening. By providing more in vivo-like cell environments, such models could address the growing concerns about drug failures due to lack of efficacy or unexpected side effects. This review aims to address the interface between substrate compliance and cell responsiveness to toxins and drugs since compliance has been established as a major determinate of overall cell fate. Here, results from 2D substrates and 3D matrices are discussed. Additionally, examples of biomaterial-based high-throughput stiffness assays in drug screening are presented.