Assessing the potential of nano-formulated chlorfenapyr and clothianidin insecticides-treated sugar baits against Anopheles funestus, Anopeles coluzzii and Culex quinquefasciatus mosquitoes.

Mosquitoes serve as vectors for various diseases like malaria, dengue fever, yellow fever, and lymphatic filarial diseases causing significant global health problems, highlighting the importance of vector control. The study was conducted to assess the effectiveness of nanoformulated clothianidin and chlorfenapyr insecticides treated with ATSB in controlling three mosquito strains. The development of a natural thiolated polymer-coated ATSB nano formulation involved incorporating nano-carriers to deliver insecticides. Field- collected mosquito strains were subjected to laboratory-based bioassays using 1 % and 1.5 % concentrations of each conventionally used and nanoformulated insecticide with ATSB solution. Adult mosquitoes were left overnight to contact with N-ATSB and efficacy was recorded after 36 and 72 h. The results showed that nanoformulated chlorfenapyr was significantly more effective as compared to clothianidin against An. funestus and Cx. quinquefasciatus but the results were not significantly different against An. coluzzii (100 %). An. coluzzii was found to be the most susceptible strain followed by An. funestus and showed 100 % and ∼ 98 % mortality against nanoformulated chlorfenapyr (1.5 %). Nanoformulated clothianidin induced more than 92 % and ∼ 100 % mortality against An. funestus and An. coluzzii respectively. However, Cx. quinquefasciatus significantly showed less mortality against nanoformulated clothianidin (88 %) and chlorfenapyr (>95 %) as compared to Anopheline strains. Furthermore, results indicate that nanoformulated insecticides significantly caused greater and prolonged fatality as compared to conventional form, suggesting effective and suitable strategies for vector management.

Entomological longitudinal surveys in two contrasted eco-climatic settings in Cameroon reveal a high malaria transmission from Anopheles funestus associated with GSTe2 metabolic resistance.

BACKGROUND: The impact of metabolic resistance to insecticides on malaria transmission remains poorly characterised notably through application of entomological parameters. The lack of resistance markers has been one of the limiting factors preventing a robust assessment of such impact. To this end, the present study sought to investigate how the L119F-Gste2 metabolic gene influences entomological parameters underpinning mosquitos' propensity to transmit Plasmodium spp. METHODS: Longitudinal studies were carried out in Mibellon and Elende, two different eco-climatic settings in Cameroon and mosquitoes were collected using Human Landing Catch (HLC), Centre for Disease Control Light Trap (CDC-LT) and Pyrethrum Spray Catch (PSC) technics. Plasmodium sporozoite parasites were detected by TaqMan and Nested PCR, and blood meal origin by ELISA. The allele-specific PCR (AS-PCR) method was used to genotype the L119F-GSTe2 marker and association with malaria transmission was established by comparing key transmission parameters such as the Entomological Inoculation Rate (EIR) between individuals with different L119F-GSTe2 genotypes. RESULTS: An. funestus s.l was the predominant malaria vector collected during the entomological survey in both sites (86.6% and 96.4% in Elende and Mibellon, respectively) followed by An. gambiae s.l (7.5% and 2.4%, respectively). Sporozoite infection rates were very high in both collection sites (8.7% and 11% in Elende and Mibellon, respectively). An. funestus s.s exhibited a very high entomological inoculation rate (EIR) (66 ib/h/month and 792 ib/h/year) and was responsible for 98.6% of all malaria transmission events occurring in both sites. The Human Blood Index was also high in both locations (HBI = 94%). An. funestus s.s. mosquitoes with both 119 F/F (RR) and L119F (RS) genotypes had a significantly higher transmission intensity than their susceptible L/L119 (SS) counterparts (IRR = 2.2, 95%CI (1.1-5.2), p = 0.03; IRR = 2.5, 95% CI (1.2-5.8), p = 0.01 respectively). CONCLUSION: This study highlights the major role that An. funestus s.s plays in malaria transmission in Cameroon with an aggravation from GSTe2-based metabolic resistance.

Susceptibility status of major malaria vectors to novaluron, an insect growth regulator South-Eastern Tanzania.

Introduction: application of Insect Growth Regulator (IGR) such as pyriproxyfen has shown a promising result in controlling malaria transmitting mosquitoes through autodissemination technique. Novaluron that inhibits the chitin development at mosquito larval stage present a promising candidate IGR for rotation with pyriproxyfen to prevent a chance of resistance development. This study assessed the susceptibility of immature stages of Anopheles arabiensis, Anopheles gambiae and Anopheles funestus to novaluron. Methods: susceptibility bioassays using technical grade novaluron (98% active ingredient) were performed inside the semi-field system using first instar larvae of Anopheles species. For each tested species, a total of 1500 larvae were used in the bioassay. Concentration range of 0.01 mg/l to 2 mg/l of novaluron were tested to establish Lethal Concentration (LC) sufficient to kills 50%, 90% and 99% of the exposed larvae by using log-dose response analysis. Results: of the tested mosquitoes, Anopheles gambiae were highly susceptible to novaluron followed by An. Arabiensis and then An. funestus. Lethal concentrations, LC50, LC90 and LC99 (95%CI) in mg/l for An. gambiae were 0.018, 0.332 and 2.001 respectively. For An. arabiensis were 0.026, 0.546 and 2.013; and for An. funestus were 0.032, 1.00 and 5.580. High larval mortality was recorded at high concentration (2mg/L), with 80% mortality within 3 days post exposure. Conclusion: the study demonstrates the efficacy of novaluron in controlling Anopheles mosquito species at immature stages via larval mortality. These findings warrant further testing of novaluron for autodissemination by different vector species for its inclusion in rotation to prevent development of resistance.

Pyrethroid Resistance Aggravation in Ugandan Malaria Vectors Is Reducing Bednet Efficacy.

Monitoring cases of insecticide resistance aggravation and the effect on the efficacy of control tools is crucial for successful malaria control. In this study, the resistance intensity of major malaria vectors from Uganda was characterised and its impact on the performance of various insecticide-treated nets elucidated. High intensity of resistance to the discriminating concentration (DC), 5× DC, and 10× DC of pyrethroids was observed in both Anopheles funestus and Anopheles gambiae in Mayuge and Busia leading to significant reduced performance of long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) including the piperonyl butoxide (PBO)-based nets (Olyset Plus). Molecular analysis revealed significant over-expression of cytochrome P450 genes (CYP9K1 and CYP6P9a/b). However, the expression of these genes was not associated with resistance escalation as no difference was observed in the level of expression in mosquitoes resistant to 5× DC and 10× DC compared to 1× DC suggesting that other resistance mechanisms are involved. Such high intensity of pyrethroid resistance in Uganda could have terrible consequences on the effectiveness of insecticide-based interventions and urgent action should be taken to prevent the spread of super-resistance in malaria vectors.

Personal protection with PBO-pyrethroid synergist-treated nets after 2 years of household use against pyrethroid-resistant Anopheles in Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: The spread of pyrethroid resistance in malaria vectors threatens the effectiveness of standard long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLIN). Synergist nets combine pyrethroid (Py) and piperonyl-butoxide (PBO) to enhance potency against resistance mediated by mono-oxygenase mechanisms. Our project assessed personal protection of the World Health Organization first-in-class PBO-Py LLIN (Olyset Plus) versus the standard LLIN (Olyset net) against pyrethroid-resistant Anopheles gambiae sensu lato (s.l.) and An. funestus in North-West Tanzania after 20 months of household use. METHODS: From a household survey, 39 standard Olyset net and 39 Olyset Plus houses were selected. The physical integrity and hole index (HI) of the nets were assessed, and resting mosquitoes were collected from inside nets and from room walls. The indoor abundance was estimated using CDC light traps and species identified using PCR. The bioefficacy of PBO and standard LLINs against wild Anopheles was assessed using 30-minute cylinder bioassays. RESULTS: Of 2397 Anopheles collected, 8.9% (n = 213) were resting inside standard Olyset nets, while none were found inside Olyset Plus nets (PBO-Py LLINs) of any HI category. Resting density of blood-fed mosquitoes was higher on walls of sleeping rooms with Olyset nets compared to Olyset Plus (0.62 vs 0.10, density ratio [DR]: 0.03, 95% CI 0.01-0.13, p < 0.001). Mosquitoes were found inside Olyset nets of all WHO HI categories, but more were collected inside the more damaged nets (HI ≥ 643) than in less damaged (HI 0-64) nets (DR: 6.4, 95% CI 1.1-36.0, p = 0.037). In bioassay, mortality of An. gambiae s.l. was higher with Olyset Plus than with Olyset nets for new nets (76.8% vs 27.5%) and nets used for 20 months (56.8% vs 12.8%); similar trends were observed with An. funestus. CONCLUSION: The PBO-Py LLINs provided improved protection after 20 months of household use, as demonstrated by the higher bioassay mortality and absence of pyrethroid-resistant An. gambiae sensu stricto (s.s.) and An. funestus collected from inside Olyset Plus nets, irrespective of HI category, as compared to Olyset nets.

Reduced exposure to malaria vectors following indoor residual spraying of pirimiphos-methyl in a high-burden district of rural Mozambique with high ownership of long-lasting insecticidal nets: entomological surveillance results from a cluster-randomized trial.

BACKGROUND: The need to develop new products and novel approaches for malaria vector control is recognized as a global health priority. One approach to meeting this need has been the development of new products for indoor residual spraying (IRS) with novel active ingredients for public health. While initial results showing the impact of several of these next-generation IRS products have been encouraging, questions remain about how to best deploy them for maximum impact. To help address these questions, a 2-year cluster-randomized controlled trial to measure the impact of IRS with a microencapsulated formulation of pirimiphos-methyl (PM) in an area with high ownership of long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) was conducted in a high-transmission district of central Mozambique with pyrethroid resistant vectors. Presented here are the results of the vector surveillance component of the trial. METHODS: The 2 year, two-armed trial was conducted in Mopeia District, Zambezia Province, Mozambique. In ten sentinel villages, five that received IRS with PM in October-November 2016 and again in October-November 2017 and five that received no IRS, indoor light trap collections and paired indoor-outdoor human landing collections catches (HLCs) were conducted monthly from September 2016 through October 2018. A universal coverage campaign in June 2017, just prior to the second spray round, distributed 131,540 standard alpha-cypermethrin LLINs across all study villages and increased overall net usage rates in children under 5 years old to over 90%. RESULTS: The primary malaria vector during the trial was Anopheles funestus sensu lato (s.l.), and standard World Health Organization (WHO) tube tests with this population indicated variable but increasing resistance to pyrethroids (including alpha-cypermethrin, from > 85% mortality in 2017 to 7% mortality in 2018) and uniform susceptibility to PM (100% mortality in both years). Over the entire duration of the study, IRS reduced An. funestus s.l. densities by 48% (CI95 33-59%; p < 0.001) in indoor light traps and by 74% (CI95 38-90%; p = 0.010) during indoor and outdoor HLC, though in each study year reductions in vector density were consistently greatest in those months immediately following the IRS campaigns and waned over time. Overall there was no strong preference for An. funestus to feed indoors or outdoors, and these biting behaviours did not differ significantly across study arms: observed indoor-outdoor biting ratios were 1.10 (CI95 1.00-1.21) in no-IRS villages and 0.88 (CI95 0.67-1.15) in IRS villages. The impact of IRS was consistent in reducing HLC exposures both indoors (75% reduction: CI95 47-88%; p = 0. < 0.001) and outdoors (68% reduction: CI95 22-87%; p = 0.012). While substantially fewer Anopheles gambiae s.l. were collected during the study, trends show a similar impact of IRS on this key vector group as well, with a 33% (CI95 7-53%; p = 0.019) reduction in mosquitoes collected in light traps and a non-statistically significant 39% reduction (p = 0.249) in HLC landing rates. CONCLUSION: IRS with PM used in addition to pyrethroid-only LLINs substantially reduced human exposures to malaria vectors during both years of the cluster-randomized controlled trial in Mopeia-a high-burden district where the primary vector, An. funestus s.l., was equally likely to feed indoors or outdoors and demonstrated increasing resistance to pyrethroids. Findings suggest that IRS with PM can provide effective vector control, including in some settings where pyrethroid-only ITNs are widely used. Trial registration clinicaltrials.gov , NCT02910934. Registered 22 September 2016, https://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02910934.

Member species of the Anopheles gambiae complex can be misidentified as Anopheles leesoni.

BACKGROUND: Accurate Anopheles species identification is key for effective malaria vector control. Identification primarily depends on morphological analysis of field samples as well as molecular species-specific identifications. During an intra-laboratory assessment (proficiency testing) of the Anopheles funestus group multiplex PCR assay, it was noted that Anopheles arabiensis can be misidentified as Anopheles leesoni, a zoophilic member of the An. funestus group. The aim of this project was, therefore, to ascertain whether other members of the Anopheles gambiae complex can also be misidentified as An. leesoni when using the standard An. funestus multiplex PCR. METHODS: The An. funestus multiplex PCR was used to amplify DNA from An. gambiae complex specimens. These included specimens from the laboratory colonies and field samples from the Democratic Republic of Congo. Amplified DNA from these specimens, using the universal (UV) and An. leesoni species-specific primers (LEES), were sequence analysed. Additionally, An. leesoni DNA was processed through the diagnostic An. gambiae multiplex PCR to determine if this species can be misidentified as a member of the An. gambiae complex. RESULTS: Laboratory-colonized as well as field-collected samples of An. arabiensis, An. gambiae, Anopheles merus, Anopheles quadriannulatus, Anopheles coluzzii as well as Anopheles moucheti produced an amplicon of similar size to that of An. leesoni when using an An. funestus multiplex PCR. Sequence analysis confirmed that the UV and LEES primers amplify a segment of the ITS2 region of members of the An. gambiae complex and An. moucheti. The reverse was not true, i.e. the An. gambiae multiplex PCR does not amplify DNA from An. leesoni. CONCLUSION: This investigation shows that An. arabiensis, An. gambiae, An. merus, An. quadriannulatus, An. coluzzii and An. moucheti can be misidentified as An. leesoni when using An. funestus multiplex PCR. This shows the importance of identifying specimens using standard morphological dichotomous keys as far as possible prior to the use of appropriate PCR-based identification methods. Should there be doubt concerning field-collected specimens molecularly identified as An. leesoni, the An. gambiae multiplex PCR and sequencing of the internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2) can be used to eliminate false identifications.

Preferred resting surfaces of dominant malaria vectors inside different house types in rural south-eastern Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: Malaria control in Africa relies extensively on indoor residual spraying (IRS) and insecticide-treated nets (ITNs). IRS typically targets mosquitoes resting on walls, and in few cases, roofs and ceilings, using contact insecticides. Unfortunately, little attention is paid to where malaria vectors actually rest indoors, and how such knowledge could be used to improve IRS. This study investigated preferred resting surfaces of two major malaria vectors, Anopheles funestus and Anopheles arabiensis, inside four common house types in rural south-eastern Tanzania. METHODS: The assessment was done inside 80 houses including: 20 with thatched roofs and mud walls, 20 with thatched roofs and un-plastered brick walls, 20 with metal roofs and un-plastered brick walls, and 20 with metal roofs and plastered brick walls, across four villages. In each house, resting mosquitoes were sampled in mornings (6 a.m.-8 a.m.), evenings (6 p.m.-8 p.m.) and at night (11 p.m.-12.00 a.m.) using Prokopack aspirators from multiple surfaces (walls, undersides of roofs, floors, furniture, utensils, clothing, curtains and bed nets). RESULTS: Overall, only 26% of An. funestus and 18% of An. arabiensis were found on walls. In grass-thatched houses, 33-55% of An. funestus and 43-50% of An. arabiensis rested under roofs, while in metal-roofed houses, only 16-20% of An. funestus and 8-30% of An. arabiensis rested under roofs. Considering all data together, approximately 40% of mosquitoes rested on surfaces not typically targeted by IRS, i.e. floors, furniture, utensils, clothing and bed nets. These proportions were particularly high in metal-roofed houses (47-53% of An. funestus; 60-66% of An. arabiensis). CONCLUSION: While IRS typically uses contact insecticides to target adult mosquitoes on walls, and occasionally roofs and ceilings, significant proportions of vectors rest on surfaces not usually sprayed. This gap exceeds one-third of malaria mosquitoes in grass-thatched houses, and can reach two-thirds in metal-roofed houses. Where field operations exclude roofs during IRS, the gaps can be much greater. In conclusion, there is need for locally-obtained data on mosquito resting behaviours and how these influence the overall impact and costs of IRS. This study also emphasizes the need for alternative approaches, e.g. house screening, which broadly tackle mosquitoes beyond areas reachable by IRS and ITNs.

Evaluation of an ultraviolet LED trap for catching Anopheles and Culex mosquitoes in south-eastern Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: Improved surveillance techniques are required to accelerate efforts against major arthropod-borne diseases such as malaria, dengue, filariasis, Zika and yellow-fever. Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are increasingly used in mosquito traps because they improve energy efficiency and battery longevity relative to incandescent bulbs. This study evaluated the efficacy of a new ultraviolet LED trap (Mosclean) against standard mosquito collection methods. METHODS: The study was conducted in controlled semi-field settings and in field conditions in rural south-eastern Tanzania. The Mosclean trap was compared to commonly used techniques, namely CDC-light traps, human landing catches (HLCs), BG-Sentinel traps and Suna traps. RESULTS: When simultaneously placed inside the same semi-field chamber, the Mosclean trap caught twice as many Anopheles arabiensis as the CDC-light trap, and equal numbers to HLCs. Similar results were obtained when traps were tested individually in the chambers. Under field settings, Mosclean traps caught equal numbers of An. arabiensis and twice as many Culex mosquitoes as CDC-light traps. It was also better at trapping malaria vectors compared to both Suna and BG-Sentinel traps, and was more efficient in collecting mosquitoes indoors than outdoors. The majority of An. arabiensis females caught by Mosclean traps were parous (63.6%) and inseminated (89.8%). In comparison, the females caught by CDC-light traps were 43.9% parous and 92.8% inseminated. CONCLUSIONS: The UV LED trap (Mosclean trap) was efficacious for sampling Anopheles and Culex mosquitoes. Its efficacy was comparable to and in some instances better than traps commonly used for vector surveillance. The Mosclean trap was more productive in sampling mosquitoes indoors compared to outdoors. The trap can be used indoors near human-occupied nets, or outdoors, in which case additional CO2 improves catches. We conclude that this trap may have potential for mosquito surveillance. However, we recommend additional field tests to validate these findings in multiple settings and to assess the potential of LEDs to attract non-target organisms, especially outdoors.

Escalation of Pyrethroid Resistance in the Malaria Vector Anopheles funestus Induces a Loss of Efficacy of Piperonyl Butoxide-Based Insecticide-Treated Nets in Mozambique.

BACKGROUND: Insecticide resistance poses a serious threat to insecticide-based interventions in Africa. There is a fear that resistance escalation could jeopardize malaria control efforts. Monitoring of cases of aggravation of resistance intensity and its impact on the efficacy of control tools is crucial to predict consequences of resistance. METHODS: The resistance levels of an Anopheles funestus population from Palmeira, southern Mozambique, were characterized and their impact on the efficacy of various insecticide-treated nets established. RESULTS: A dramatic loss of efficacy of all long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs), including piperonyl butoxide (PBO)-based nets (Olyset Plus), was observed. This An. funestus population consistently (2016, 2017, and 2018) exhibited a high degree of pyrethroid resistance. Molecular analyses revealed that this resistance escalation was associated with a massive overexpression of the duplicated cytochrome P450 genes CYP6P9a and CYP6P9b, and also the fixation of the resistance CYP6P9a_R allele in this population in 2016 (100%) in contrast to 2002 (5%). However, the low recovery of susceptibility after PBO synergist assay suggests that other resistance mechanisms could be involved. CONCLUSIONS: The loss of efficacy of pyrethroid-based LLINs with and without PBO is a concern for the effectiveness of insecticide-based interventions, and action should be taken to prevent the spread of such super-resistance.

First report of natural Wolbachia infection in wild Anopheles funestus population in Senegal.

BACKGROUND: Until very recently, Anopheles were considered naturally unable to host Wolbachia, an intracellular bacterium regarded as a potential biological control tool. Their detection in field populations of Anopheles gambiae sensu lato, suggests that they may also be present in many more anopheline species than previously thought. RESULTS: Here, is reported the first discovery of natural Wolbachia infections in Anopheles funestus populations from Senegal, the second main malaria vector in Africa. Molecular phylogeny analysis based on the 16S rRNA gene revealed at least two Wolbachia genotypes which were named wAnfu-A and wAnfu-B, according to their close relatedness to the A and B supergroups. Furthermore, both wAnfu genotypes displayed high proximity with wAnga sequences previously described from the An. gambiae complex, with only few nucleotide differences. However, the low prevalence of infection, together with the difficulties encountered for detection, whatever method used, highlights the need to develop an effective and sensitive Wolbachia screening method dedicated to anopheline. CONCLUSIONS: The discovery of natural Wolbachia infection in An. funestus, another major malaria vector, may overcome the main limitation of using a Wolbachia-based approach to control malaria through population suppression and/or replacement.

Experimental huts trial of the efficacy of pyrethroids/piperonyl butoxide (PBO) net treatments for controlling multi-resistant populations of Anopheles funestus s.s. in Kpomè, Southern Benin.

Background: Insecticides resistance in Anopheles mosquitoes limits Long-Lasting Insecticidal Nets (LLIN) used for malaria control in Africa, especially Benin. This study aimed to evaluate the bio-efficacy of current LLINs in an area where An. funestuss.l. and An. gambiae have developed multi-resistance to insecticides, and to assess in experimental huts the performance of a mixed combination of pyrethroids and piperonyl butoxide (PBO) treated nets on these resistant mosquitoes. Methods: The study was conducted at Kpomè, Southern Benin. The bio-efficacy of LLINs against An. funestus and An. gambiae was assessed using the World Health Organization (WHO) cone and tunnel tests. A released/recapture experiment following WHO procedures was conducted to compare the efficacy of conventional LLINs treated with pyrethroids only and LLINs with combinations of pyrethroids and PBO. Prior to huts trials, we confirmed the level of insecticide and PBO residues in tested nets using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Results: Conventional LLINs (Type 2 and Type 4) have the lowest effect against local multi-resistant An. funestus s.s. and An. coluzzii populations from Kpomè. Conversely, when LLINs containing mixtures of pyrethroids and PBO (Type 1 and Type 3) were introduced in trial huts, we recorded a greater effect against the two mosquito populations (P < 0.0001). Tunnel test with An. funestus s.s. revealed mortalities of over 80% with this new generation of LLINs (Type 1 and Type 3),while conventional LLINs produced 65.53 ± 8.33% mortalities for Type 2 and 71.25 ±7.92% mortalities for Type 4. Similarly, mortalities ranging from 77 to 87% were recorded with the local populations of An. coluzzii. Conclusion: This study suggests the reduced efficacy of conventional LLINs (Pyrethroids alone) currently distributed in Benin communities where Anopheles populations have developed multi-insecticide resistance. The new generation nets (pyrethroids+PBO) proved to be more effective on multi-resistant populations of mosquitoes.

Impact of non-pyrethroid insecticide treated durable wall lining on age structure of malaria vectors in Muheza, Tanzania.

OBJECTIVE: Malaria vectors control interventions are designed to cause immediate killing or shorten mosquito lives, therefore does not allow enough time for the development of the parasites to infective stage. The wall lining is new malaria vectors control intervention in Tanzania where its impact on age structure is not well known. Therefore this study aimed at determining the impact of non-pyrethroid durable wall lining on the age structure of malaria vectors. RESULTS: Higher proportions of An. gambiae sensu lato (57.1%, z = 2.66, P = 0.0077) and An. funestus (64.8%, z = 3.38, P = 0.001) were collected in the control clusters. Unexpectedly, significantly higher proportion of parous An. gambiae s. l. were collected in the intervention clusters (z = - 2.78, P = 0.0054). The wall lining intervention has demonstrated low impact on age structure of An. gambiae s. l., this call for further studies on the efficacy of the intervention.

Review of the evolution of insecticide resistance in main malaria vectors in Cameroon from 1990 to 2017.

BACKGROUND: Malaria remains a major public health threat in Cameroon and disease prevention is facing strong challenges due to the rapid expansion of insecticide resistance in vector populations. The present review presents an overview of published data on insecticide resistance in the main malaria vectors in Cameroon to assist in the elaboration of future and sustainable resistance management strategies. METHODS: A systematic search on mosquito susceptibility to insecticides and insecticide resistance in malaria vectors in Cameroon was conducted using online bibliographic databases including PubMed, Google and Google Scholar. From each peer-reviewed paper, information on the year of the study, mosquito species, susceptibility levels, location, insecticides, data source and resistance mechanisms were extracted and inserted in a Microsoft Excel datasheet. The data collected were then analysed for assessing insecticide resistance evolution. RESULTS: Thirty-three scientific publications were selected for the analysis. The rapid evolution of insecticide resistance across the country was reported from 2000 onward. Insecticide resistance was highly prevalent in both An. gambiae (s.l.) and An. funestus. DDT, permethrin, deltamethrin and bendiocarb appeared as the most affected compounds by resistance. From 2000 to 2017 a steady increase in the prevalence of kdr allele frequency was noted in almost all sites in An. gambiae (s.l.), with the L1014F kdr allele being the most prevalent. Several detoxification genes (particularly P450 monooxygenase) were associated with DDT, pyrethroids and bendiocarb resistance. In An. funestus, resistance to DDT and pyrethroids was mainly attributed to the 119F-GSTe2 metabolic resistance marker and over-expression of P450 genes whereas the 296S-RDL mutation was detected in dieldrin-resistant An. funestus. CONCLUSIONS: The review provides an update of insecticide resistance status in malaria vector populations in Cameroon and stresses the need for further actions to reinforce malaria control strategies in the coming years.

Insecticide resistance status of three malaria vectors, Anopheles gambiae (s.l.), An. funestus and An. mascarensis, from the south, central and east coasts of Madagascar.

BACKGROUND: Insecticide-based vector control, which comprises use of insecticide-treated bed nets (ITNs) and indoor residual spraying (IRS), is the key method to malaria control in Madagascar. However, its effectiveness is threatened as vectors become resistant to insecticides. This study investigated the resistance status of malaria vectors in Madagascar to various insecticides recommended for use in ITNs and/or IRS. METHODS: WHO tube and CDC bottle bioassays were performed on populations of Anopheles gambiae (s.l.), An. funestus and An. mascarensis. Adult female An. gambiae (s.l.) mosquitoes reared from field-collected larvae and pupae were tested for their resistance to DDT, permethrin, deltamethrin, alpha-cypermethrin, lambda-cyhalothrin, bendiocarb and pirimiphos-methyl. Resting An. funestus and An. mascarensis female mosquitoes collected from unsprayed surfaces were tested against permethrin, deltamethrin and pirimiphos-methyl. The effect on insecticide resistance of pre-exposure to the synergists piperonyl-butoxide (PBO) and S,S,S-tributyl phosphorotrithioate (DEF) also was assessed. Molecular analyses were done to identify species and determine the presence of knock-down resistance (kdr) and acetylcholinesterase resistance (ace-1 R ) gene mutations. RESULTS: Anopheles funestus and An. mascarensis were fully susceptible to permethrin, deltamethrin and pirimiphos-methyl. Anopheles gambiae (s.l.) was fully susceptible to bendiocarb and pirimiphos-methyl. Among the 17 An. gambiae (s.l.) populations tested for deltamethrin, no confirmed resistance was recorded, but suspected resistance was observed in two sites. Anopheles gambiae (s.l.) was resistant to permethrin in four out of 18 sites (mortality 68-89%) and to alpha-cypermethrin (89% mortality) and lambda-cyhalothrin (80% and 85%) in one of 17 sites, using one or both assay methods. Pre-exposure to PBO restored full susceptibility to all pyrethroids tested except in one site where only partial restoration to permethrin was observed. DEF fully suppressed resistance to deltamethrin and alpha-cypermethrin, while it partially restored susceptibility to permethrin in two of the three sites. Molecular analysis data suggest absence of kdr and ace-1 R gene mutations. CONCLUSION: This study suggests involvement of detoxifying enzymes in the phenotypic resistance of An. gambiae (s.l.) to pyrethroids. The absence of resistance in An. funestus and An. mascarensis to pirimiphos-methyl and pyrethroids and in An. gambiae (s.l.) to carbamates and organophosphates presents greater opportunity for managing resistance in Madagascar.

Malaria impact of large dams at different eco-epidemiological settings in Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Dams are important to ensure food security and promote economic development in sub-Saharan Africa. However, a poor understanding of the negative public health consequences from issues such as malaria could affect their intended advantages. This study aims to compare the malaria situation across elevation and proximity to dams. Such information may contribute to better understand how dams affect malaria in different eco-epidemiological settings. METHODS: Larval and adult mosquitoes were collected from dam and non-dam villages around the Kesem (lowland), Koka (midland), and Koga (highland) dams in Ethiopia between October 2013 and July 2014. Determination of blood meal sources and detection of Plasmodium falciparum sporozoites was done using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Five years of monthly malaria case data (2010-2014) were also collected from health centers in the study villages. RESULTS: Mean monthly malaria incidence was two- and ten-fold higher in the lowland dam village than in midland and highland dam villages, respectively. The total surface area of anopheline breeding habitats and the mean larval density was significantly higher in the lowland dam village compared with the midland and highland dam villages. Similarly, the mean monthly malaria incidence and anopheline larval density was generally higher in the dam villages than in the non-dam villages in all the three dam settings. Anopheles arabiensis, Anopheles pharoensis, and Anopheles funestus s.l. were the most common species, largely collected from lowland and midland dam villages. Larvae of these species were mainly found in reservoir shoreline puddles and irrigation canals. The mean adult anopheline density was significantly higher in the lowland dam village than in the midland and highland dam villages. The annual entomological inoculation rate (EIR) of An. arabiensis, An. funestus s.l., and An. pharoensis in the lowland dam village was 129.8, 47.8, and 33.3 infective bites per person per annum, respectively. The annual EIR of An. arabiensis and An. pharoensis was 6.3 and 3.2 times higher in the lowland dam village than in the midland dam village. CONCLUSIONS: This study found that the presence of dams intensifies malaria transmission in lowland and midland ecological settings. Dam and irrigation management practices that could reduce vector abundance and malaria transmission need to be developed for these regions.

Multiple insecticide resistance in the major malaria vector Anopheles funestus in southern Ghana: implications for malaria control.

BACKGROUND: Understanding the dynamics of insecticide resistance in African malaria vectors is crucial for successful implementation of resistance management strategies in the continent. This study reports a high and multiple insecticide resistance in Anopheles funestus from southern Ghana which could compromise the Malaria Operational Plan in this country, if not tackled. Adult Anopheles mosquitoes were collected in Obuasi and Adawukwa, in southern Ghana. Plasmodium infection rates, susceptibility to the main insecticides used in public health and the molecular basis of insecticide resistance were established. RESULTS: An. funestus (sensu stricto) (s.s.) was the predominant mosquito species found resting inside the houses in Obuasi, while at Adawukwa it was found together with An. coluzzii. Parasite rates were high in An. funestus (s.s.) populations from both localities, with Plasmodium infection rates greater than 12.5 %. Both, An. funestus (s.s.) and An. coluzzii, from the two sites exhibited high resistance to the insecticide from various classes including the pyrethroids, carbamates and DDT, but remained fully susceptible to the organophosphates. A preliminary characterization of the underlying molecular mechanisms of resistance in An. funestus (s.s.) populations from both sites revealed that CYP6P9a, CYP6P9b, CYP6M7 and GSTe2 genes are upregulated, markedly higher in Obuasi (between 3.35 and 1.83 times) than in Adawukwa population. The frequency of L119F-GSTe2 and A296S-RDL resistance markers were also higher in Obuasi (42.5 and 68.95 % higher), compared with An. funestus (s.s.) populations from Adawukwa. These findings suggest that the similar resistance pattern observed in both An. funestus (s.s.) populations are driven by different mechanisms. CONCLUSIONS: Resistance to multiple insecticides in public health use is present in malaria vectors from Ghana with major resistance genes already operating in the field. This should be taken into consideration in the design of resistance management strategies to avoid operational failure.

The larvicidal effects of black pepper (Piper nigrum L.) and piperine against insecticide resistant and susceptible strains of Anopheles malaria vector mosquitoes.

BACKGROUND: Insecticide resistance carries the potential to undermine the efficacy of insecticide based malaria vector control strategies. Therefore, there is an urgent need for new insecticidal compounds. Black pepper (dried fruit from the vine, Piper nigrum), used as a food additive and spice, and its principal alkaloid piperine, have previously been shown to have larvicidal properties. The aim of this study was to investigate the larvicidal effects of ground black pepper and piperine against third and fourth instar Anopheles larvae drawn from several laboratory-reared insecticide resistant and susceptible strains of Anopheles arabiensis, An. coluzzii, An. gambiae, An. quadriannulatus and An. funestus. METHODS: Larvae were fed with mixtures of standard larval food and either ground black pepper or piperine in different proportions. Mortality was recorded 24 h after black pepper and 48 h after piperine were applied to the larval bowls. RESULTS: Black pepper and piperine mixtures caused high mortality in the An. gambiae complex strains, with black pepper proving significantly more toxic than piperine. The An. funestus strains were substantially less sensitive to black pepper and piperine which may reflect a marked difference in the feeding habits of this species compared to that of the Gambiae complex or a difference in food metabolism as a consequence of differences in breeding habitat between species. CONCLUSIONS: Insecticide resistant and susceptible strains by species proved equally susceptible to black pepper and piperine. It is concluded that black pepper shows potential as a larvicide for the control of certain malaria vector species.

A first report of Anopheles funestus sibling species in western Kenya highlands.

Understanding disease vector composition is of priority in designing effective disease control programs. In integrated vector control management, understanding of disease vector species among species complexes simplifies priorities for effective control tools selection. This study identified members of the Anopheles funestus complex sampled in western Kenya from 2002 to 2011 from different breeding sites. Larval sampling was carried out using the standard dipper (350ml) in larval habitats in western Kenya highlands from January 2002 to December 2012. The morphologically identified An. funestus larvae were preserved in absolute ethanol for molecular identification using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Among the 184 identified specimens of An. funestus sampled, only 76 specimens were clearly identified after DNA amplification and PCR. Among these, 25 (32.9%) were An. funestus s.s, 22 (28.9%) An. leesoni, 9 (11.8%) An. rivulorum and 20 (26.3%) were An. vaneedeni. None was identified as An. parensis. This study has demonstrated the existence of the siblings species of An. funestus complex in western Kenya highlands. However, there is need for further studies to evaluate the dynamics of the adults and sporozoite infectivity rates throughout the region based on these findings.