The relationship between boredom proneness, the behavioral inhibition system, and anxiety in college students: variable-centered and person-centered analytic approaches.

Objective: To explore the relationship among boredom proneness, the behavioral inhibition system, and anxiety among college students based on variable-centered and person-centered analytic approaches. Methods: A questionnaire survey was conducted on 1,102 college students from a university in Hebei Province using the Boredom Proneness Questionnaire (BPQ) for College Students, the Behavioral Inhibition System Scale (BIS), and the General Anxiety Disorder-7 scale (GAD-7). Results: The results reveal that boredom proneness was negatively correlated with scores on the behavioral inhibition system (r = -0.100, p < 0.01), and positively correlated with anxiety (r = 0.457, p < 0.001), while the behavioral inhibition system was positively correlated with anxiety (r = 0.086, p < 0.01). In the variable-centered analyses study, it was found that the behavioral inhibition system partially mediated the association between boredom proneness and anxiety. In the person-centered analyses study, three subtypes were identified: the high boredom-low inhibition group (9.35%), the moderate boredom-inhibition group (66.70%), and the low boredom-high inhibition group (23.95%). Individuals in these subtypes showed significant differences in anxiety scores (F = 4.538, p < 0.05), with the low boredom-high inhibition group scoring the highest. Conclusion: The results showed that the behavioral inhibition system partially mediates the relationship between boredom proneness and anxiety in college students; boredom proneness and the behavioral inhibition system exhibit group heterogeneity, with distinct classification features closely related to anxiety.

From Good Citizens to Bad Apples? The Effect of Boredom Proneness: A Moral Licensing Perspective.

Although boredom proneness has been well-studied, there is still an ongoing scholarly debate about whether boredom can move individuals to act counterproductively or productively. Drawing from a moral licensing perspective, this study empirically investigates how boredom proneness influences interpersonal citizenship behavior (ICB), moral meaningfulness, and interpersonal deviance over time. Utilizing a total of 328 three-wave panel data obtained via Amazon Mechanical Turk during a three-month period, we find the following results. First, individuals with a higher initial level of boredom proneness demonstrate a higher initial level of ICB. Second, as boredom proneness increases at a faster rate, ICB increases at a faster rate over time. Third, individuals with a higher initial level of ICB report a higher initial level of moral meaningfulness. Finally, individuals with a higher initial level of moral meaningfulness exhibit a higher initial level of interpersonal deviance. Implications for theory and practice are discussed.

An Analysis of the Latent Class and Influencing Factors of Problematic Mobile Social Media Usage Among Chinese College Students.

Purpose: To explore the potential classification of Problematic Mobile Social Media Usage (PMSMU) in Chinese college students, analyze whether there is group heterogeneity in PMSMU, and discuss the differences in the latent profile of PMSMU in fear of missing out, online positive feedback, and boredom proneness. Methods: A total of 2591 Chinese college students were investigated using the Problematic Mobile Social Media Usage Questionnaire, Fear of Missing Out (FOMO) Scale, Online Positive Feedback Scale and Short-form Boredom Proneness Scale, and heterogeneity was tested by latent profile analysis. Results: The PMSMU of college students can be divided into three latent profiles: no-problem use group (26.44%), mild problem use group (56.66%), and severe problem use group (16.91%). Male students, as compared to female students, showed a significantly lower likelihood of being classified as mild problematic users (OR=0.50, p<0.001) and severe problematic users (OR=0.29, p<0.001). Additionally, students with higher levels of FOMO, a stronger craving for online positive feedback, and increased boredom proneness are more likely to belong to the severe problematic use group (OR=2.91, p<0.001; OR=1.42, p<0.01; OR=8.72, p<0.001). Conclusion: The results of this study highlight the factors influencing the heterogeneity of individual PMSMU. Specifically, female college students and those with a higher fear of missing out, greater susceptibility to boredom, and a stronger craving for positive online feedback are more likely to exhibit severe PMSMU. These findings provide valuable empirical evidence for developing preventive strategies to address PMSMU among college students.

Examining the Association Between Boredom Proneness and Bedtime Procrastination Among Chinese College Students: A Sequential Mediation Model with Mobile Phone Addiction and Negative Emotions.

Purpose: The phenomenon of bedtime procrastination has become very common in China in recent years, especially among college students, and it can have numerous negative implications for both physical and mental health. However, the impacting factors and possible underlying mechanisms of bedtime procrastination have not yet been fully clarified. The present study aims to explore the relationship between boredom proneness and bedtime procrastination in Chinese college students, and propose a multiple mediation model to further explore the mediating effects of mobile phone addiction and negative emotions in this link. Participants and Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted involving 668 Chinese college students aged 18 to 32 years old (M=20.36 years [SD=1.69]; 35.03% male). A series of self-rating questionnaires measuring degrees of boredom proneness, mobile phone addiction, bedtime procrastination, as well as negative emotions (depression, anxiety and stress) were administered. Results: The results showed that boredom proneness, mobile phone addiction, negative emotions and bedtime procrastination were significantly and positively correlated with each other in college students. Mobile phone addiction and negative emotions separately played partial mediating roles in the relationship between boredom proneness and bedtime procrastination. Furthermore, a sequential mediation pathway was significant whereby boredom proneness predicted mobile phone addiction, which was associated with higher levels of negative emotions, which were then associated with more bedtime procrastination behaviors. Conclusion: The present findings indicate that both mobile phone addiction and negative emotions are important risk-enhancing mediators in the association between boredom proneness and bedtime procrastination in Chinese college students. Therefore, intervention management that concentrating on reducing mobile phone addiction as well as improving negative emotions may be useful for decreasing bedtime procrastination among college students.

Associations Between Trait Boredom and Frequency of Cannabis, Alcohol, and Tobacco Use in College Students.

Objective: Boredom is a common emotion associated with substance use in college students - a group already at risk for substance misuse. The purpose of this study is to understand how two types of trait boredom (susceptibility and proneness) in college students are associated with frequency of cannabis, alcohol, and tobacco use. Method: Data were collected from an online survey completed by a sample of undergraduate students (N = 414, Mage = 19.55, 84.5% female; 64.3% White) enrolled at a large public university in the northwest. Multivariate logistic regression was used to evaluate the association between trait boredom and frequency of cannabis, alcohol, and tobacco use after controlling for age, sex, and race. Results: Boredom susceptibility was a significant predictor of annual, monthly, and weekly cannabis and alcohol use, but only annual and monthly tobacco use. Boredom proneness was only a significant predictor for monthly alcohol use. Conclusions: Findings were generally consistent across types of substances and frequency of use for boredom susceptibility, indicating students higher in susceptibility, rather than proneness, are a subgroup to target prevention interventions to alleviate boredom and subsequent maladaptive coping mechanisms.

Why Cannot I Stop Phubbing? Boredom Proneness and Phubbing: A Multiple Mediation Model.

Background: With the popularity of smartphone and their increasingly rich functions, people's attachment to their phones is increasing. While people enjoy the convenience that smartphone bring (eg, accessing information and socializing), it also leads to problematic smartphone use (eg, phubbing). Previous research has shown that boredom proneness can trigger phubbing. However, the underlying psychological mechanisms are not yet clear. Methods: To address this research gap, we surveyed 556 Chinese college students (Mage = 18.89 years, SD = 1.18) during the COVID-19 pandemic and all participants completed a self-report questionnaire. Drawing the Interaction of Person-Affect-Cognition-Execution model (I-PACE) for addictive behaviors, this study developed and examined a multiple mediation model incorporating boredom proneness, loneliness, fear of missing out (FoMO), and phubbing. Results: (1) Boredom proneness could positively predict phubbing; (2) loneliness and FoMO mediated the relationship between boredom proneness and phubbing, respectively; and (3) loneliness and FoMO sequentially mediated the relationship between boredom proneness and phubbing. Conclusion: These findings are not only valuable for understanding the underlying mechanisms linking boredom proneness and phubbing, but also suggest that three types of interventions could be effectively used to decrease the risk of phubbing among college students, namely, reducing boredom proneness, relieving loneliness, and decreasing FoMO.

The role of boredom proneness and self-control in the association between anxiety and smartphone addiction among college students: a multiple mediation model.

Background: Smartphone addiction has been found to be a widespread public health issue, especially among youth. Previous studies reported a significant association between anxiety and smartphone addiction, but the underlying mechanism in this relationship is unclear. The purpose of this study was to investigate the mediating roles of boredom proneness and self-control in the relationship between anxiety and smartphone addiction. Methods: Self-reported measures of anxiety, boredom proneness, self-control and smartphone addiction were administered to 1,526 Chinese college students. Results: Smartphone addiction scores varied between 10 and 60 with an average of 30.89 ± 10.57 points. Anxiety had a direct and positive effect on smartphone addiction (effect = 0.18, 95% CI = 0.11-0.25), and an indirect effect on smartphone addiction through boredom proneness (effect = 0.10, 95% CI = 0.06-0.15) and self-control (effect = 0.16, 95% CI = 0.13-0.20). Boredom proneness and self-control sequentially mediated the relationship between anxiety and smartphone addiction (effect = 0.12, 95% CI = 0.10-0.15). Conclusion: Anxiety is positively associated with smartphone addiction, and boredom proneness and self-control are important mediators in this relationship. Strengthening self-control and mitigating boredom could prevent smartphone addiction in anxious college students.

Life Events, Boredom Proneness and Mobile Phone Addiction Tendency: A Longitudinal Mediation Analysis Based on Latent Growth Modeling (LGM).

Purpose: Mobile phone addiction has motivated a widespread concern in recent years. From a developmental perspective, this study explored the predictive relations between life events, boredom proneness (BP), and mobile phone addiction tendency (MPAT) among undergraduate students. It also tested the longitudinal mediation of BP between life events and MPAT. Methods: Five hundred and eighty-four undergraduate students completed the Mobile Phone Addiction Tendency Scale, the Adolescent Self-Rating Life Events Checklist, and the Boredom Proneness Scale-Short Form. A longitudinal mediation analysis based on latent growth modeling was conducted to test the hypothesized relationships among life events, BP and MPAT. Results: Latent growth modeling (LGM) showed that the BP and MPAT of undergraduate students both increased linearly. A longitudinal model based on LGM showed that negative life events both directly and indirectly affected the initial level and the growth rate of the MPAT through the mediating effect of the initial level of BP. Conclusion: These results reveal that negative life events are an indicator of the development of MPAT. It has practical implications for calling for adopting health coping styles when facing negative life events. Supported for reducing college students' boredom proneness in order to lessen the tendency towards mobile phone addiction to improve their mental health.

A Pre-Registered Examination of the Relationship Between Psychopathy, Boredom-Proneness, and University-Level Cheating.

Academic cheating is a prevalent problem in all educational institutions. Finding solutions for cheating requires an understanding of who is more likely to engage in these behaviors. In this pre-registered study (including an a priori power analysis), we investigated the relationship between the four facets of psychopathy, boredom-proneness, and academic cheating in undergraduate university students (N = 161) while controlling for demographic factors (age, sex, and socioeconomic status) and attitudes supportive of cheating. Students were asked whether they had cheated in the fall 2021 term (yes/no) and about the different types of cheating behaviors they engaged in. Overall, 57% of students admitted to cheating, with online cheating being the most frequently reported behavior. Participants scoring higher on the antisocial facet of psychopathy and endorsing more positive attitudes towards cheating were more likely to report cheating in fall 2021 and engaged in a higher number of different types of cheating behaviors. Those scoring lower on the affective facet of psychopathy (i.e., more emotional) were also more likely to engage in a higher number of cheating behaviors. Boredom-proneness was correlated to both cheating outcomes in the bivariate analyses, but this effect disappeared once controlling for psychopathy and other known correlates. Understanding the features of students who engage in cheating behaviors allows for a critical examination of the potential effectiveness of anti-cheating policies and the development of more preventative classroom practices.

Mediating Roles of Fear of Missing Out and Boredom Proneness on Psychological Distress and Social Media Addiction Among Indian Adolescents.

Objective: The closure of schools and other educational institutes around the world has been one of the consequences of the COVID-19 and has resulted in online teaching. To facilitate online teaching, there has been an increase in the use of smartphones and tablets among adolescents. However, such enhancement in technology use may put many adolescents at the risk of problematic use of social media. Consequently, the present study explored the direct relationship of psychological distress with social media addiction. The relationship between the two was also assessed indirectly via the fear of missing out (FoMO) and boredom proneness. Methods: A cross-sectional online survey was conducted with 505 Indian adolescents aged 12 to 17 years, studying in grades 7 to 12. Standardized tools (with some modifications to suit the context of the present study) were used to collect data. Results: The results showed significant positive associations between psychological distress, social media addiction, FoMO, and boredom proneness. Psychological distress was found to be a significant predictor of social media addiction. Moreover, FoMO and boredom proneness partially mediated the relationships between psychological distress and social media addiction. Discussion: The present study is the first to provide evidence for the specific pathways of FoMO and boredom proneness in the relationships between psychological distress and social media addiction.

The Effect of Future Time Perspective on Internet Dependence Among College Students in Pandemic Time: A Moderated Mediation Analysis.

Purpose: Social isolation during the COVID-19 pandemic has greatly increased the probability of Internet dependence. This study sought to examine the relation between future time perspective and college students' Internet dependence, as well as the mediating role of boredom proneness and the moderating effect of self-control in the link between boredom proneness and Internet dependence. Materials and Methods: A questionnaire survey was carried out among college students from two universities in China. A sample of 448 participants varying from freshmen to seniors completed questionnaires on future time perspective, Internet dependence, boredom proneness and self-control. Results: Results indicated that college students with high future time perspective were less likely to fall into Internet dependence and boredom proneness mediated this relationship. The relation between boredom proneness and Internet dependence was moderated by self-control. Boredom proneness had a greater impact on Internet dependence for students with low self-control. Conclusion: Future time perspective could influence Internet dependence through the mediating role of boredom proneness, which is moderated by self-control. The results advanced our understanding of how future time perspective affected college students' Internet dependence, revealing that intervention strategies which could improve students' self-control would be instrumental in reducing Internet dependence.

The Relationship between Boredom Proneness, Attachment Styles and Compulsive Sexual Behavior.

Affect regulation is associated with compulsive sexual behavior (CSB) despite ongoing debate about its inclusion in diagnostic criteria. Previous studies on two specific affect regulation constructs - boredom proneness and attachment styles - suggest that affect regulation is associated with CSB. We tested a moderation model of the effects of attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance on the relationship between boredom proneness and CSB. Results indicate that the relationship between boredom proneness and CSB is stronger at higher levels of attachment anxiety, with no interaction between boredom proneness and attachment avoidance. Overall findings support the importance of affect regulation in conceptualizing and treating CSB.

The effect of short-form video addiction on undergraduates' academic procrastination: a moderated mediation model.

Background: Short-form videos have become one of the most popular ways for people to entertain and relax. However, the intense interest in short-form videos has given rise to short-video addiction, which poses risks to both physical and mental health of individuals. Undergraduates are one of the important users for short-form videos, and the influence of short-form video addiction calls for more attention. This study aimed to investigate the association between short-form video addiction and academic procrastination among undergraduates, exploring the role of executive functions (i.e., attentional control) and personality traits (i.e., boredom proneness) in the association. Methods: Using stratified random cluster sampling method, the data of 1,047 college students were used in the study. All variables were measured by empirical instruments, and all instruments were highly reliable. Mediation and moderation analysis was conducted using Model 4 and 7 in PROCESS macro powered by SPSS. Results: Results revealed that short-form video addiction not only directly impacted academic procrastination but also placed indirect effect on academic procrastination through attentional control. Furthermore, the mediating effect of attentional control was contingent upon individuals' boredom proneness. Higher levels of boredom proneness weakened the impact of short-form video addiction on attentional control. Conclusion: The findings expand our knowledge of the negative effects of short-form video addiction and the underlying mechanisms, providing implications for mitigating undergraduates' academic procrastination.

Boredom Proneness and Online Deviant Behaviors: The Mediating Role of Rumination and the Moderating Role of Gender.

Online deviant behaviors have received increasing attention. This study examined the association between boredom proneness and online deviant behaviors as well as the mediating role of rumination and the moderating role of gender in the relationship. A sample of 1001 college students (Mage = 20.20 ± 1.52 years, 50.25% female) was recruited to complete a set of questionnaires assessing the main variables. The results show that boredom proneness was positively associated with online deviant behaviors and that rumination played a mediating role in this relationship. Moreover, gender differences were found in the relationship, which was stronger for males than females. Despite several limitations, this study deepens our understanding of the influencing mechanism of boredom proneness on online deviant behaviors, which could provide practical implications for the prevention and intervention of online deviant behaviors.

The Struggle to Entertain Yourself: Consequences of the Internal Stimulation Factor of Boredom Proneness during Pandemic Lockdown.

Boredom is a ubiquitous human experience that most people try to avoid feeling. People who are prone to boredom experience negative consequences. This study examined the impact of individual differences in the ability to entertain the self (the internal stimulation factor) on boredom experiences during the COVID-19 lockdown in the United States. The internal and external stimulation factors predicted greater boredom frequency, boredom duration, and boredom intensity, each of which reflected a different aspect of emotional experience. The relationship among these factors was complex. A serial mediation analysis indicated the internal stimulation factor predicted the frequency of boredom, which in turn predicted the duration of boredom, which predicted boredom intensity. This pattern of relationships is potentially unique to boredom among emotional experiences. These findings provide insight into how boredom functions during a period in which daily activities and coping resources that would normally be available became severely limited.

Boredom is the root of all evil-or is it? A psychometric network approach to individual differences in behavioural responses to boredom.

Functional accounts of boredom propose that boredom serves as an impartial signal to change something about the current situation, which should give rise to adaptive and maladaptive behaviour alike. This seemingly contrasts with research on boredom proneness, which has overwhelmingly shown associations with maladaptive behaviour. To shed light on this discrepancy, we disentangled boredom proneness from individual differences in (i) the urge to avoid and escape boredom and (ii) adaptive and maladaptive ways of dealing with boredom by developing corresponding trait scales. In a study with N = 636 participants, psychometric network modelling revealed tight associations between boredom proneness and less adaptive and (especially) more maladaptive ways of dealing with boredom. However, its associations with the urge to avoid and escape boredom were rather weak. Importantly, a higher urge to avoid and escape boredom was linked not only to more maladaptive but also to more adaptive ways of dealing with boredom. This pattern of results was robust across various specific behaviours that have previously been linked to boredom. Our findings provide novel evidence for functional accounts of boredom from an individual difference perspective, cautioning against a shallow view of boredom as being associated with purely maladaptive behaviour.

Effect of social media overload on college students' academic performance under the COVID-19 quarantine.

Features and relevant services of online social media have been attracting users during the COVID-19 pandemic. Previous studies have shown that college students tend to use social media more frequently than other groups. However, in being affected by social media overload, the social media use behaviors of many college students have been out of their control in terms of their capabilities or cognition. Based on the stressor-strain-outcome (SSO) model and the theory of compensatory internet use (TCIU), we developed a research model to study the causes of social media overload and its impact on college students' academic performance during the COVID-19 pandemic. A total of 441 valid responses from college students through questionnaires in China are collected via purposive sampling and used in the data analysis. This study conducts PLS-SEM to analyze collected data, finding that boredom proneness is associated with overload (stress), which has a bearing on social media overload (strain) and the reduction in final performance (outcome). Through illustrating the psychological and behavioral conditions that hinder the academic performance of students, this study provides deeper insights into students' uncontrollable use of social media. Moreover, with respect to the identified antecedents, this study aims to find solutions to mitigate the impact of social media overload resulting from boredom proneness on the academic performance of college students.

Psychological distress and internet addiction following the COVID-19 outbreak: Fear of missing out and boredom proneness as mediators.

COVID-19 has caused major changes in people's mental health and behavior. This study aimed to investigate whether boredom proneness and fear of missing out acted as mediators between psychological distress and Internet addiction (IA). A cross-sectional survey was conducted in 2020, including 552 youths aged 17-28 years. The recruited participants were asked to complete a series of self-reported questionnaires regarding psychological distress, fear of missing out, boredom proneness and IA. The results indicate that during the COVID-19 pandemic, the reporting rate of IA in young adults was 28.1%, and fear of missing out and boredom proneness played multiple mediation roles in the relationship between psychological distress and IA. Governments and education departments should focus on young people with psychological deficits to prevent them from succumbing to IA.

Boredom in a Time of Uncertainty: State and Trait Boredom's Associations with Psychological Health during COVID-19.

Throughout the COVID-19 pandemic, studies have demonstrated increases in boredom and its negative impact on mental health. This cross-sectional study examines state and trait boredom at four different points of the pandemic using an online sample of participants from the United States (n = 783). The results showed significant increases in boredom proneness, state boredom, substance use, loneliness, and distress. Boredom was associated with increases in each of these variables and a greater likelihood of testing positive for COVID-19. Moreover, the increases in distress, loneliness, and substance use became non-significant when controlling for boredom. Boredom proneness remained associated with all adverse outcomes when accounting for state boredom. In contrast, the relationships between state boredom and most adverse outcomes lost significance when controlling for boredom proneness, and state boredom was positively associated with increased hope for the future. Overall, the results suggest that high boredom proneness is an important vulnerability factor for poor psychological health and risky behaviors during the pandemic. However, high levels of recent state boredom, independent of boredom proneness, do not predict similarly negative outcomes. State boredom may indicate the extent to which one remains hopeful that circumstances will improve without resorting to risky, potentially maladaptive coping strategies.

I'll Do It - After One More Scroll: The Effects of Boredom Proneness, Self-Control, and Impulsivity on Online Procrastination.

Procrastination is a common phenomenon. With the increasing ubiquity of new media, research has started to investigate the ways in which these technologies are used as alternatives to task engagement. This paper extends the literature by examining procrastinatory uses of social media, instant messaging, and online shopping with respect to boredom proneness, self-control, and impulsivity among German and Turkish samples. Regression analyses revealed that boredom proneness, self-control, and the perseverance facet of impulsivity are especially significant predictors of online procrastination in both samples. The results between the two studies differ in terms of impulsivity. The findings of this paper highlight the thus far understudied role of boredom proneness and various aspects of impulsivity in online procrastination, and demonstrate that social media procrastination, instant messaging procrastination, and shopping procrastination tendencies likely have distinct underlying mechanisms.