Wood density is related to aboveground biomass and productivity along a successional gradient in upper Andean tropical forests.

Wood density (WD) is a key functional trait related to ecological strategies and ecosystem carbon dynamics. Despite its importance, there is a considerable lack of information on WD in tropical Andean forests, particularly regarding its relationship with forest succession and ecosystem carbon cycling. Here, we quantified WD in 86 upper Andean tree and shrub species in central Colombia, with the aim of determining how WD changes with forest succession and how it is related to productivity. We hypothesized that WD will increase with succession because early successional forests will be colonized by acquisitive species, which typically have low WD, while the shaded understory of older forests should favor higher WD. We measured WD in 481 individuals from 27 shrub and 59 tree species, and quantified aboveground biomass (AGB), canopy height, net primary production (NPP) and species composition and abundance in 14, 400-m2, permanent plots. Mean WD was 0.513 ± 0.114 (g/cm3), with a range between 0.068 and 0.718 (g/cm3). Shrubs had, on average, higher WD (0.552 ± 0.095 g/cm3) than trees (0.488 ± 0.104 g/cm3). Community weighted mean WD (CWMwd) decreased with succession (measured as mean canopy height, AGB, and basal area); CWMwd also decreased with aboveground NPP and stem growth. In contrast, the percentage of NPP attributed to litter and the percent of shrubs in plots increased with CWMwd. Thus, our hypothesis was not supported because early successional forests had higher CWMwd than late successional forests. This was related to a high proportion of shrubs (with high WD) early in succession, which could be a consequence of: 1) a low seed availability of trees due to intense land use in the landscape and/or 2) harsh abiotic conditions early in succession that filter out trees. Forest with high CWMwd had a high %NPP attributed to litter because they were dominated by shrubs, which gain little biomass in their trunks. Our findings highlight the links between WD, succession and carbon cycling (biomass and productivity) in this biodiversity hotspot. Thus, WD is an important trait that can be used to understand upper Andean forest recovery and improve forest restoration and management practices.

Internet of Things Geosensor Network for Cost-Effective Landslide Early Warning Systems.

Worldwide, cities with mountainous areas struggle with an increasing landslide risk as a consequence of global warming and population growth, especially in low-income informal settlements. Landslide Early Warning Systems (LEWS) are an effective measure to quickly reduce these risks until long-term risk mitigation measures can be realized. To date however, LEWS have only rarely been implemented in informal settlements due to their high costs and complex operation. Based on modern Internet of Things (IoT) technologies such as micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) sensors and the LoRa (Long Range) communication protocol, the Inform@Risk research project is developing a cost-effective geosensor network specifically designed for use in a LEWS for informal settlements. It is currently being implemented in an informal settlement in the outskirts of Medellin, Colombia for the first time. The system, whose hardware and firmware is open source and can be replicated freely, consists of versatile LoRa sensor nodes which have a set of MEMS sensors (e.g., tilt sensor) on board and can be connected to various different sensors including a newly developed low cost subsurface sensor probe for the detection of ground movements and groundwater level measurements. Complemented with further innovative measurement systems such as the Continuous Shear Monitor (CSM) and a flexible data management and analysis system, the newly developed LEWS offers a good benefit-cost ratio and in the future can hopefully find application in other parts of the world.

Salifodinibacter halophilus gen. nov., sp. nov., a halophilic gammaproteobacterium in the family Salinisphaeraceae isolated from a salt mine in the Colombian Andes.

Two morphologically similar halophilic strains, named USBA 874 and USBA 960T, were isolated from water and sediment samples collected from the Zipaquirá salt mine in the Colombian Andes. Both isolates had non-spore-forming, Gram-stain-negative and motile cells that grew aerobically. The strains grew optimally at 30 °C, pH 7.0 and with 25 % NaCl (w/v). The isolates showed almost identical 16S rRNA gene sequences (99.0 % similarity). The predominant quinones of USBA-960T were Q-8, Q-7 and Q-9. The major cellular fatty acids were C19 : 0 cyclo ω8c, C18 : 0 and C16 : 0. According to 16S rRNA gene sequencing, the closest phylogenetic relatives are Salinisphaera species (similarity between 93.6 and 92.3 %), Abyssibacter profundi OUC007T (88.6 %) and Oceanococcus atlanticus 22II-S10r2T (88.7 %). In addition, the result of genome blast distance phylogeny analysis between strains USBA 874 and USBA 960T, Salinisphaera halophila (YIM 95161T), Salinisphaera shabanensis (E1L3AT), Salinisphaera orenii (MK-B5T) and Salinisphaera japonica (YTM-1T) was 18.5 %. Other in silico species delineation analyses also showed low identity such as ANIb and ANIm values (<69.0 and <84.0 % respectively), TETRA (<0.81) and AAI values (<0.67). Genome sequencing of USBA 960T revealed a genome size of 2.47 Mbp and a G+C content of 59.71 mol%. Phylogenetic analysis of strains USBA 874 and USBA 960T indicated that they formed a different lineage within the family Salinisphaeraceae. Based on phenotypic and chemotaxonomic characteristics, phylogenetic analysis and DNA-DNA relatedness values, along with identity at whole genome level, it can be concluded that strains USBA 960T and USBA 874 represent a novel genus of the family Salinisphaeraceae and the name Salifodinibacter halophilus gen. nov., sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is USBA 960T (CMPUJ U095T=CECT 30006T).

Thermal tolerance and the importance of microhabitats for Andean frogs in the context of land use and climate change.

Global warming is having impacts across the Tree of Life. Understanding species' physiological sensitivity to temperature change and how they relate to local temperature variation in their habitats is crucial to determining vulnerability to global warming. We ask how species' vulnerability varies across habitats and elevations, and how climatically buffered microhabitats can contribute to reduce their vulnerability. We measured thermal sensitivity (critical thermal maximum-CTmax ) of 14 species of Pristimantis frogs inhabiting young and old secondary, and primary forests in the Colombian Andes. Exposure to temperature stress was measured by recording temperature in the understorey and across five microhabitats. We determined frogs' current vulnerability across habitats, elevations and microhabitats accounting for phylogeny and then ask how vulnerability varies under four warming scenarios: +1.5, +2, +3 and +5°C. We found that CTmax was constant across species regardless of habitat and elevation. However, species in young secondary forests are expected to become more vulnerable because of increased exposure to higher temperatures. Microhabitat variation could enable species to persist within their thermal temperature range as long as regional temperatures do not surpass +2°C. The effectiveness of microhabitat buffering decreases with a 2-3°C increase, and is almost null under a 5°C temperature increase. Microhabitats will provide thermal protection to Andean frog communities from climate change by enabling tracking of suitable climates through short distance movement. Conservation strategies, such as managing landscapes by preserving primary forests and allowing regrowth and reconnection of secondary forest would offer thermally buffered microhabitats and aid in the survival of this group.

Para determinar la vulnerabilidad de las especies al calentamiento global es indispensable considerar la tolerancia fisiológica de las especies al cambio de temperatura y las condiciones ambientales a las que están expuestas. En este estudio exploramos la vulnerabilidad de especies a través de diferentes hábitats y altitudes y examinamos si ciertos microhábitats contribuyen a reducir la vulnerabilidad al calentamiento global. Medimos la tolerancia térmica (CTmax ) de catorce especies de ranas Pristimantis en bosques secundarios jóvenes y viejos, y bosques primarios en los Andes tropicales. Registramos la temperatura a la que estas especies están expuestas en el sotobosque así como dentro de cinco microhábitats. Usando CTmax y las temperaturas a las que están expuestas, determinamos la vulnerabilidad de las especies en diferentes hábitats, elevaciones y microhábitats. También preguntamos cómo cambiará esta vulnerabilidad si la temperatura incrementa: 1.5°C, 2°C, 3°C y 5°C. CTmax fue constante en todos los hábitats y elevaciones. Las especies de bosques secundarios jóvenes son más vulnerables pues están expuestas a temperaturas más altas. Al utilizar microhábitats, las especies estarán protegidas si el aumento de temperatura no supera los + 2°C. Todos los microhábitats seguirán proporcionando refugio térmico si la temperatura aumenta 1.5°C, pero esta protección térmica disminuirá si la temperatura aumenta 2-3°C y será casi nula con un aumento de temperatura de 5°C. Los microhábitats proporcionarán protección térmica a la comunidad de ranas de los Andes contra el cambio climático. Estrategias de conservación, como la regeneración natural y la reconexión de bosques secundarios y la preservación de bosques primarios, ayudaría a la supervivencia de las ranas al tener microhábitats que ofrecen refugio térmico.

Studies of Raspy Crickets: Magnumtergalis n. gen. a new gryllacrid genus with elongate male terminalia (Orthoptera: Gryllacrididae) from Colombia.

Magnumtergalis n. gen. a new genus from the Inter-Andean Valleys and midlands of the Colombian Andes' central cordillera is described. Two very peculiar species are placed within this genus, M. aldarioarenasi n. sp. (type species) and M. albonigra n. comb. An unusual terminalia to the family Gryllacrididae characterizes this genus, in which the ninth tergite is noticeably prolonged, covering the other structures of the male terminalia. This is the first genus of leaf-rolling crickets described from the Neotropics in the last 80 years.

Checklist of the false scorpions (Arachnida: Pseudoscorpiones) of Colombia, with new records and a key to the identification of the families.

Colombia is a mega-biodiverse country and rich in ecosystems as different as the Amazon and the Andes. Much is known of the vertebrate fauna, however there is still an information-gap for many arthropod groups including the arachnids. Here, we compile all the information available for pseudoscorpions (Arachnida: Pseudoscorpiones) recorded from Colombia and include several new records and distribution extensions. For each described species, we present information on taxonomic history, type localities, global and local distributions, repository of Colombian specimens, and collection numbers when available. We document 12 families, 45 genera and 65 species of pseudoscorpions for Colombia and most species belong to the families Chernetidae (27 species) and Olpiidae (8 species). We record Beierolpium venezuelense Heurtault, 1982, Geogarypus amazonicus Mahnert, 1979, Sathrochthonius venezuelanus Muchmore, 1989, and Semeiochernes armiger (Balzan, 1892) for the first time for Colombia. We further extend the known ranges of Parachernes melonopygus Beier, 1959 and Paratemnoides nidificator (Balzan, 1888). The data suggest that the Caribbean region of Colombia has the highest number of records. Total numbers are not complete and many other new pseudoscorpion species are expected.

Gene flow and Andean uplift shape the diversification of Gasteracantha cancriformis (Araneae: Araneidae) in Northern South America.

The Andean uplift has played a major role in shaping the current Neotropical biodiversity. However, in arthropods other than butterflies, little is known about how this geographic barrier has impacted species historical diversification. Here, we examined the phylogeography of the widespread color polymorphic spider Gasteracantha cancriformis to evaluate the effect of the northern Andean uplift on its divergence and assess whether its diversification occurred in the presence of gene flow. We inferred phylogenetic relationships and divergence times in G. cancriformis using mitochondrial and nuclear data from 105 individuals in northern South America. Genetic diversity, divergence, and population structure were quantified. We also compared multiple demographic scenarios for this species using a model-based approach (phrapl) to determine divergence with or without gene flow. At last, we evaluated the association between genetic variation and color polymorphism. Both nuclear and mitochondrial data supported two well-differentiated clades, which correspond to populations occurring on opposite sides of the Eastern cordillera of the Colombian Andes. The final uplift of this cordillera was identified as the most likely force that shaped the diversification of G. cancriformis in northern South America, resulting in a cis- and trans-Andean phylogeographic structure for the species. We also found shared genetic variation between the cis- and trans-Andean clades, which is better explained by a scenario of historical divergence in the face of gene flow. This has been likely facilitated by the presence of low-elevation passes across the Eastern Colombian cordillera. Our work constitutes the first example in which the Andean uplift coupled with gene flow influenced the evolutionary history of an arachnid lineage.

Diversidad de insectos acuáticos en quebradas impactadas por agricultura y minería, Caldas, Colombia / Insect diversity in streams impacted by agriculture and mining, Caldas, Colombia

Resumen Los ecosistemas dulceacuícolas están sometidos a fuertes presiones de tipo antrópico (e.g. agricultura y minería), las cuales ocasionan efectos adversos sobre la diversidad de insectos acuáticos. Se evaluó la comunidad de insectos en quebradas impactadas por agricultura y minería, y se determinó cómo estas actividades afectan a la comunidad. Se estudiaron seis quebradas en Caldas (Colombia), dos impactadas por minería, dos por agricultura y dos quebradas usadas como zonas de referencia. Los insectos fueron recolectados usando una red Surber con tres réplicas por tipo de sustrato (sedimento fino, roca y hojarasca). En total se recolectaron 12 502 insectos acuáticos. Los géneros más representativos fueron: Baetodes, Simulium y Cricotopus (57.7 %). Las quebradas impactadas por agricultura tienen baja diversidad de insectos acuáticos, comparado con las impactadas por minería (F2,309 = 21.82, p = 0.001). La zona agrícola presenta una estructura dominada por Simulium y Cricotopus (Diptera, morfoespecies tolerantes a la contaminación). Baetodes dominó en el sustrato roca, Cricotopus en el sedimento y Simulium y Cricotopus en la hojarasca (F2,309 = 2.84, p = 0.001). Por lo tanto, ambos factores (tipo de impacto y sustrato) son importantes para determinar la diversidad de insectos acuáticos. Nuestros resultados sugieren que la actividad agrícola tiene un mayor impacto sobre la diversidad de insectos acuáticos, los cuales pueden estar asociados con la pérdida de la vegetación ribereña.

Abstract Freshwater ecosystems are under severe anthropic pressure (e.g. agriculture and mining), which generates adverse effects on the diversity of aquatic insects. We evaluated the insect community in streams impacted by agriculture and mining, and determined how these activities affected the community. We studied six streams in Caldas (Colombia), two with mining and two with agriculture impact. We collected the insects using a Surber net with three replicates per substrate (fine sediment, stones, and litter). In total, 12 502 aquatic insects were collected. The most representative genera were Baetodes, Simulium, and Cricotopus (57.7 %). Streams with agricultural activity had lower aquatic insects diversity than mining impact (F2,309 = 21.82, p = 0.001). The agriculture areas presented a structure dominated by Simulium and Cricotopus (Diptera, pollution-tolerant morphospecies). Baetodes dominated in stones substrate, Cricotopus in sediment, and Simulium and Cricotopus dominated in litter (F2,309 = 2.84, p = 0.001). Therefore, both factors (impact and substrate type) are being important in determining the diversity of aquatic insects. Our results suggested that agricultural activity has a higher impact on the diversity of aquatic insects, which may be associated with the loss of riparian vegetation.

Draft genome and description of Consotaella salsifontis gen. nov. sp. nov., a halophilic, free-living, nitrogen-fixing alphaproteobacterium isolated from an ancient terrestrial saline spring.

A free-living, nitrogen-fixing, mesophilic and facultative aerobe, designated strain USBA 369T, was isolated from a terrestrial saline spring of the Colombian Andes. The non-sporulating rods (1.5×0.8 µm) with rounded ends stained Gram-negative and were motile by means of lophotrichous flagella. The strain grew optimally at 30 °C, at pH 6.9-7.5 and with 1.5 % (w/v) NaCl. The major fatty acids detected were C18 : 1ω7c and C19 : 0 cyclo ω8c, and the respiratory lipoquinone ubiquinone 10 (Q-10) was present. The genome consisted of 4.65 Mb with a DNA G+C content of 64.3 mol%. A total of 4371 genes were predicted and, of those, 4300 were protein coding genes and 71 were RNA genes. Phylogenetic analysis based on 16S rRNA gene sequence indicated that strain USBA 369T formed a different lineage within the class Alphaproteobacteria, order Rhizobiales, and DNA homology studies with the most closely related genera, Aurantimonas, Aureimonas and Rhizobium (95 % 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity), showed values of <15 %. The phylogenomic analysis provided evidence for clear phylogenetic divergence between strain USBA 369T and the closely related genera. On the basis of the phenotypic, chemotaxonomic and phylogenomic evidence, strain USBA 369T is considered to represent a novel genus and a novel species for which the name Consotaella salsifontis gen. nov., sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is USBA 369T (=KCTC 22549T=CMPUJ U369T).

Climbing behavior of Cordylancistrus sp. in the Colombian Andes / Comportamiento de Escalada de Cordylancistrus sp. en los Andes Colombianos / Comportamento de Escalada de Cordylancistrus sp. nos Andes da Colombia

The climbing behavior in a suckermouth Loricariidae catfish species is reported for the first time. A group of eight specimens of Cordylancistrus sp. were observed in situ climbing a waterfall in a mountain stream of the Colombian Andes. This study describes how this species overcame the vertical barrier, and then discusses and hypothesizes how the development of "key morphological and behavioral innovations" could play an important role in the occupation of a new niche and in the diversification of the Loricariidae family.

El comportamiento de escalada en una especie de bagre Loricariidae con ventosa se reporta por primera vez. Se observó un grupo de ocho especímenes de Cordylancistrus sp. in situ escalando una cascada en un arroyo de montaña de los Andes colombianos. Aquí, describimos cómo esta especie superó la barrera vertical, y finalmente se discute y plantea la hipótesis de cómo el desarrollo de "innovaciones morfológicas y de comportamiento claves" pueden desempeñar un papel importante en la ocupación de un nuevo nicho y en la diversificación de la familia Loricariidae.

O comportamento de escalada em uma espécie de cascudo da familia Loricariidae é descrita pela primeira vez. Um grupo de oito exemplares de Cordylancistrus sp. foi observado in situ escalando uma cachoeira em um córrego de montanha dos Andes na Colombia. Neste traballio, descrevemos como esta espécie ultrapassou a barreira vertical, e finalmente se discute e sugere a hipótese de como as "inovações morfológicas e comportamentais chave" poderiam desempenhar um papel importante na ocupação de um nicho novo e na diversificação da familia.

A NEW POPULATION OF THE HOODED ANTPITTA (Grallaricula cucullata: Grallaridae) FOR THE COLOMBIAN CENTRAL ANDES / Una nueva población del Tororoi Cabecirufo (Grallaricula cucullata: Grallaridae) para los Andes de Colombia

We report a new population of the Hooded Anpitta (Grallariculla cucullata) in the Central Andes of Colombia, a threatened bird species inhabiting montane cloud forests in Colombian and Venezuelan Andes. We present capture-rate data, which suggest the occurrence of a resident with the highest population size reported for this bird species.

Presentamos una nueva población del Tororoi Cabecirrufo (Grallariculla cucullata), una especie de ave amenazada de los bosques montanos nublados de los Andes de Colombia y Venezuela. Presentamos datos de tasas de captura que indican la presencia de una población residente con el tamaño poblacional más alto reportado para la especie.

¿El valor de algunos servicios ecosistémicos de los Andes colombianos?: transferencia de beneficios por meta - análisis / Valuation of the ecosystem services in the Colombian Andes. The benefit transfer method: A meta-analysis / ¿O valor de alguns serviços ecossistémicos dos Andes colombianos?: transferência de benefícios por meta-análise

La valoración económica de la biodiversidad y lo servicios ecosistémicos es importante para la planificación de desarrollo socioeconómico de Colombia. La obtención d datos primarios es costosa, pero existe un método denominad "transferencia de beneficios". Se presenta una aproximación: a la valoración de algunos servicios ecosistémicos en lo Andes colombianos incorporando un meta-análisis de lo estudios realizados en Colombia, aplicando: transferencia d funciones y transferencia de valores medios. El valor de lo servicios ecosistémicos (disponibilidad de agua, recreación y conservación), arrojó valores entre 106 a 339 mil millones de dólares en 2011. La determinación del valor global de lo ecosistemas configura un reto complejo, debido a la dificulta en la síntesis de los estudios, la variabilidad de los mismo: y la ausencia de experiencias documentadas. La valoración: económica en Colombia, enfrenta el inconveniente de l presentación, obtención y variabilidad de datos. Se concluyó que la información existente es insuficiente, encontrándose pocos estudios bien diseñados. Esta contribución formula recomendaciones para futuros ejercicios.

The economic valuation of biodiversity and ecosystem services plays an important role in Colombia's conservation planning and economic development, but gathering data to conduct an original study can be expensive. To this end, there is an alternative yet controversial method called "benefits transfer". Here, we present a meta-analysis of available literature on the economic valuation of the Colombian Andes using two approaches: transfer functions and transfer of mean values. The economic value of ecosystem services, which included water availability, recreation and conservation for the Colombian Andes, yielded values between 106 and 339 trillion 2011 USD. However, determining the overall value of ecosystems presents a complex challenge due to the difficulty in the synthesis of the studies, their variability, and the nonexistence of documented experiences. Economic valuation in Colombia is faced with issues in the presentation, collection and variability of data. We concluded that the existing information is insufficient; there are few well-designed studies to procure consistent ecosystem values to support the creation of development policies in Colombia.

A valorização económica da biodiversidade e os serviços ecossistémicos é importante para a planificação do desenvolvimento socioeconómico de Colômbia. A obtenção dos dados primários utiliza um método denominado "transferência de benefícios". Apresenta-se uma aproximação da avaliação de alguns serviços ecossistémicos nos Andes colombianos incorporando uma meta-análise dos estudos realizados em Colômbia, aplicando: transferência de funções e transferência de valores médios. O valor dos serviços ecossistémicos (disponibilidade de água, recreação e conservação), exibiu valores entre 106 a 339 mil milhões de dólares em 2011. A determinação do valor global dos ecossistemas configura um desafio complexo, devido à dificuldade na síntese dos estudos, a variabilidade dos mesmos, e a ausência de experiências documentadas. A avaliação económica em Colômbia, enfrenta o inconveniente da presentação, obtenção e variabilidade de dados. Concluiu-se que a informação existente é insuficiente, encontrando-se poucos estudos bem desenhados. Esta contribuição formula recomendações para futuros exercícios.

Detection and diversity evaluation of tetracycline resistance genes in grassland-based production systems in Colombia, South america.

Grassland-based production systems use ∼26% of land surface on earth. However, there are no evaluations of these systems as a source of antibiotic pollution. This study was conducted to evaluate the presence, diversity, and distribution of tetracycline resistance genes in the grasslands of the Colombian Andes, where administration of antibiotics to animals is limited to treat disease and growth promoters are not included in animals' diet. Animal (ruminal fluid and feces) and environmental (soil and water) samples were collected from different dairy cattle farms and evaluated by PCR for the genes tet(M), tet(O), tetB(P), tet(Q), tet(W), tet(S), tet(T), otr(A), which encode ribosomal protection proteins (RPPs), and the genes tet(A), tet(B), tet(D), tet(H), tet(J), and tet(Z), encoding efflux pumps. A wide distribution and high frequency for genes tet(W) and tet(Q) were found in both sample types. Genes tet(O) and tetB(P), detected in high frequencies in feces, were detected in low frequencies or not detected at all in the environment. Other genes encoding RPPs, such as tet(M), tet(S), and tet(T), were detected at very low frequencies and restricted distributions. Genes encoding efflux pumps were not common in this region, and only two of them, tet(B) and tet(Z), were detected. DGGE-PCR followed by comparative sequence analysis of tet(W) and tet(Q) showed that the sequences detected in animals did not differ from those coming from soil and water. Finally, the farms sampled in this study showed more than 50% similarity in relation to the tet genes detected. In conclusion, there was a remarkable presence of tet genes in these production systems and, although not all genes detected in animal reservoirs were detected in the environment, there is a predominant distribution of tet(W) and tet(Q) in both animal and environmental reservoirs. Sequence similarity analysis suggests the transmission of these genes from animals to the environment.

Hábitos alimentarios del Puma concolor (Carnivora: Felidae) en el Parque Nacional Natural Puracé, Colombia

Food habits of Puma concolor (Carnivora: Felidae) in the Parque Nacional Natural Puracé,Colombia. Neotropical puma (Puma concolor) diet is scarcely known, in particular that of mountain dwelling individuals from Northern South America. This is the first study on pumas from the paramo and the first puma diet analysis for Colombia. The puma diet was studied from 2007 to 2009 in the Puracé National Park in the South Colombian Andes. Paramos are unique neotropical high altitude ecosystems which store and regulate water, and are currently threatened by agricultural expansion and climate change. Seven latrines were monitored for three years and scat collected, washed and dried. Items in scat such as hair, bones, claws and others were separated. Hairs were inspected by microscopy and compared to voucher hair museum specimens. Bone fragments, claws and teeth were also compared to museum collections and identified wherever possible. Additionally, six cameras were set along game trails to document puma and potential prey presence in the area. Food items from five species were identified in 60 puma scats; Northern Pudu (Pudu mephistophiles) was the most important prey in their diet. A total of 354 camera trap-nights photographed a male and female puma, Northern pudu and Spectacled bear (Tremarctos ornatus). The main conclusion suggests a strong dependence of puma on the threatened and mysterious Northern Pudu in paramo habitats. This behavior might reflect restricted prey availability in the high Andes mountains of Colombia, and highlights the plasticity in the puma diet. Conservation actions in the paramo should thus, focus on focal wild species, and in particularly those that show a relationship, such as the one evidenced here with the dependence of puma on Northern Pudu. These findings contribute to increase the little known ecology of Andean puma populations and the species as a whole in Colombia. Baseline data on puma prey populations in different ecosystems throughout their range, is critical to understand the regional requirements for survival, and design conservation actions, to follow and evaluate the need for particular protected areas along their geographical gradients. Rev. Biol. Trop. 59 (3): 1285-1294. Epub 2011 September 01.

La dieta de Puma concolor es ampliamente conocida a lo largo de su distribución, sin embargo, en Colombia no se ha realizado ningún estudio sobre sus hábitos alimentarios. Entre 2007-2009, la dieta de puma fue analizada en el Parque-Nacional-Natural-Puracé, sur occidente de los Andes colombianos. Ítems alimenticios de cinco especies presa fueron identificadas en su dieta; el venado conejo (Pudu mephistophiles) es la presa más importante. Como herramienta complementaria para la identificación de huesos y pelos contenidos en heces (n=60), se instalaron seis cámarastrampa en lugares estratégicos, para registrar la presencia de pumas y presas potenciales. El descubrimiento de la dependencia de los pumas con el pudú sugiere una única adaptación de los pumas de paramo a la disponibilidad de presas y resalta su importancia como reguladores de las poblaciones presa. Estos resultados contribuyen a incrementar el poco conocimiento sobre la ecología de pumas de los Andes, de sus presas y de las especies en su conjunto en Colombia. Obtener información sobre el grupo de presas de pumas en diferentes ecosistemas, es esencial para entender los requerimientos regionales para su supervivencia y diseñar acciones de conservación que permitan seguir/evaluar las necesidades particulares de áreas protegidas en toda su distribución.

Uso de la tierra y diversidades alfa, beta y gamma de diplópodos en la cuenca del río Otún, Colombia / Land use and alpha, beta, and gamma diversity of Diplopoda in the Otún basin, Colombia / Diversidade alfa, beta, gama de diplópodes segundo o uso do solo na bacia do Rio Otún, Colômbia

Objetivo: Determinar la relación entre los cambios promovidos por la intervención humana en ecosistemas y agrosistemas y la diversidad alfa, beta y gamma de Diplopoda de la cuenca media del río Otún. Materiales y métodos: Se utilizó un diseño sistemático estratificado con la selección de siete ventanas y 16 puntos de muestreo. Se separaron los diplópodos en familias y morfotipos para calcular la diversidad alfa, beta y gamma relacionada con la heterogeneidad de usos del terreno. Resultados: Se identificaron 35 morfotipos de 12 familias y cinco órdenes. La diversidad alfa de Diplopoda evidenció diferencias significativas entre usos del terreno (P < 0,05) y la disminución de ésta desde áreas más conservadas hacia las transformadas por procesos antrópicos. Se encontró alto número de morfotipos exclusivos entre relicto de selva y barbecho con bajo recambio de especies entre ellos, mientras que los pastizales, cultivos y plantaciones presentaron similar número de morfotipos pero el recambio entre ellos fue alto (complementariedad > 85%) a pesar de la baja diversidad en los usos, lo que determinó la alta contribución de la diversidad beta a la diversidad gamma del paisaje. Conclusión: La heterogeneidad de usos de la tierra mostró que los cambios modifican la estructura de la diversidad de diplópodos con gradientes que se separan desde los conservados hasta los altamente transformados.

Objective: To determine the relationship between changes in ecosystems and agrosystems provoked by human intervention and the alpha, beta and gamma diversity of the Diplopoda in the middle basin of the Otún river. Materials and methods: In this research we used a stratified systematic design with seven sampling windows and 16 sampling points. Millipedes were divided into families and morphotypes to calculate the alpha, beta and gamma diversity related to the heterogeneity of land uses. Results: We identified 35 morphotypes from 12 families and five orders. Alpha diversity of Diplopoda revealed significant differences between land uses (P <0.05) and a decrease of richness from preserved areas to transformed areas by human activity. A high number of exclusive morphotypes were found in forest relicts and fallow with low species turnover between them, while the pastures, crop fields and plantations presented similar numbers of morphotypes but the species turnover between them was high (complementarity > 85%) in spite of the low diversity in the land uses, which determined the high contribution of the beta diversity to the gamma diversity of the landscape. Conclusion: The heterogeneity of land uses showed that the changes modify the structure of diversity in Diplopoda with gradients diverging from the preserved ones to the highly transformed ones.

Objetivo: Determinar as relações entre as alterações provocadas pela intervençõo humana nos ecossistemas e agrossistemas e a diversidade alfa, beta e gama de Diplopoda da bacia meia do rio Otún. Materiais e métodos: Foi utilizado um desenho amostral estratificado sistemático com a seleçõo de sete janelas de estudo e 16 pontos de amostragem. Os diplópodes foram separados em famílias e morfotipos para o cálculo da diversidade alfa, beta e gama e posteriormente estas foram relacionadas com a heterogeneidade dos usos do solo. Resultados: Foram identificados 35 morfotipos de 12 famílias e cinco ordens. A diversidade alfa de Diplopoda apresentou diferenças significativas entre os usos da terra (P <0,05) e diminuiçõo desde áreas mais conservadas até aquelas transformadas por processos antrópicos. Observou-se um elevado número de morfotipos exclusivos entre vestígio de floresta e barbechos com baixa mudança de espécies entre eles, enquanto pastagens, lavouras e plantações tiveram números semelhantes de morfotipos; embora, a mudança de especies entre eles foi alta (complementaridade> 85%), apesar da baixa diversidade nos usos, o qual determinou à alta contribuiçõo da diversidade beta à diversidade gama da paisagem. Conclusõo: A heterogeneidade dos usos do solo apresentou que as mudanças alteram a estrutura da diversidade dos diplópodes com gradientes desde os conservados até os altamente transformados.