The Association between the Percentage of Female Law Enforcement Officers and Rape Report, Clearance, and Arrest Rates: A Spatiotemporal Analysis of California.

Rape is an underreported violent crime that frequently remains uncleared (open) in the legal system. Rape disproportionately affects women, with 91% of rape victim-survivors estimated to be female. However, law enforcement agencies, the entry point into the criminal justice system, are predominantly comprised of male officers. According to the theory of representative bureaucracy, groups with greater representation in a bureaucratic system are more likely to have their interests protected. This study aims to determine if California law enforcement agencies with a higher percentage of female officers are more likely to have higher rates of rape reporting, clearances, and arrests. No previous study has examined this relationship using statewide data. Crimes and Clearances, Monthly Arrest and Citation Register, and Uniform Crime Reporting data for California (2013-2016) were aggregated into 499 Law Enforcement Reporting Areas (LERA). Bayesian space-time Poisson regressions controlling for LERA demographics and crime produced scaled relative rates for three outcomes: (a) rape report rate: number of reports relative to population ages 18+; (b) rape clearance rate: number of clearances relative to reports; and (c) rape arrest rate: number of arrests for rape relative to reports. A 5% increase in the percentage of female officers within an agency was associated with a 6.2% increase in the rape report rate (ARR: 1.062, 95% credible interval (CI) [1.048, 1.077]), a 2.9% decrease in the clearance rate (ARR: 0.971 95% CI [0.950, 0.993]), and no change in the rape arrest rates (ARR: 1.010; 95% CI [0.981, 1.039]) across all LERA. Thus, increased female officer representation was associated with an increase in rape reporting rates but associated with a decrease in rape clearance rates. The theory of representative bureaucracy was only partially supported, and these relationships may not be causal. The quantity of rape reports received by an agency, employment and promotion practices of agencies, and victim-survivor's attitudes toward officer's gender should also be considered.

Canada's cannabis legalization and police-reported cannabis-related criminal incidents among youth, 2015-2021.

BACKGROUND: We previously reported that the 2018 Canadian Cannabis Act, allowing youth to possess up to 5 g dried cannabis or equivalent for personal use/sharing, was associated with short-term (76 days) post-legalization reduction in police-reported cannabis-related crimes among youth. To establish whether the change might be sustained, we now estimate this association during a much longer time period by including an additional three years of post-legalization data. METHODS: Using national daily police-reported criminal incident data from January 1, 2015-December 31, 2021 from the Canadian Uniform Crime Reporting Survey (UCR-2), the study employed Seasonal Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average (SARIMA) time series models to assess the associations between legalization and youth (12-17 years) cannabis-related offenses (male, n = 34,508; female, n = 9529). RESULTS: Legalization was associated with significant reductions in both male and female police-reported cannabis-related offenses: females, 4.04 daily incidents [95% confidence interval (CI), 3.08; 5.01], a 62.1% decrease [standard error (se), 34.3%]; males, 12.42 daily offenses (95% CI, 8.99; 15.86), a reduction of 53.0% (se, 22.7%). There was no evidence of associations between cannabis legalization and patterns of property or violent crimes. CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest that the impact of the Cannabis Act on reducing cannabis-related youth crimes is sustained, supporting the Act's objectives to reduce cannabis-related criminalization among youth and associated effects on the Canadian criminal justice system.

Effects of COVID-19 shutdowns on domestic violence in US cities.

We empirically investigate the impact of COVID-19 shutdowns on domestic violence using incident-level data on both domestic-related calls for service and crime reports of domestic violence assaults from the 18 major US police departments for which both types of records are available. Although we confirm prior reports of an increase in domestic calls for service at the start of the pandemic, we find that the increase preceded mandatory shutdowns, and there was an incremental decline following the government imposition of restrictions. We also find no evidence that domestic violence crimes increased. Rather, police reports of domestic violence assaults declined significantly during the initial shutdown period. There was no significant change in intimate partner homicides during shutdown months and victimization survey reports of intimate partner violence were lower. Our results fail to support claims that shutdowns increased domestic violence and suggest caution before drawing inference or basing policy solely on data from calls to police.

Police-involved Deaths and the Impact on Homicide Rates in the Post-Ferguson Era: A Study of 44 U.S. Cities.

This study investigated whether homicides increased after protested police-involved deaths, focusing on the period after Michael Brown's death in Ferguson in August 2014. It also tests for effects of legal cynicism by comparing effects in homicide and aggravated assault on the assumption that reporting of the latter is discretionary and police abuses may make communities reluctant to notify police. Using FBI data from 44 U.S. cities, homicide and assault rates from 2011 to 2019 were analyzed using an interrupted time series design and combined in a meta-analysis to calculate pooled effects. A meta-regression tested effect moderators including external investigations and city/county sociodemographic characteristics. With a conservative threshold of p ≤ .01, 21 of the 44 cities experienced a significant increase and one had a significant decrease. The pooled effect was a 26.1% increase in the homicide (99% CI: 15.3% to 36.8%). Aggravated assaults increased above baseline, though the effect was 15.2 percentage points smaller (99% CI: -26.7 to -3.6) than the effect in homicides. When outcomes were measured as percent change, there were no significant effect moderators, but when measured as absolute change, homicides increased to a greater extent when the death was subject to external investigation and in cities with higher Black populations, poverty rates, and baseline homicide rates. The findings suggest that protested police-involved deaths led to an increase in homicides and other violence due to the distrust fomented within the very communities whom police are meant to protect.

None of My Business? An Experiment Analyzing Willingness to Formally Report Incidents of Intimate Partner Violence Against Women.

Although data show that intimate partner violence against women (IPVAW) is a concealed phenomenon that is severely underreported, studies examining willingness to report episodes of IPVAW are limited. To contribute to this field of research, a factorial survey experiment was implemented in which each respondent (N = 1,007) received a unique vignette describing a hypothetical case of IPVAW. Slightly over one in four respondents (28.1%) indicated that they would report the aggression. It was also found that willingness to report was influenced by both the characteristics of the vignettes and certain personal ones of the respondents. Practical implications are proposed that may contribute to preventing IPVAW.

Police Fatal Force and Crime Reporting: A Test of Community Responses to Fatal Police-Civilian Encounters.

Public perceptions of police legitimacy and effectiveness have been challenged by recent high-profile use of fatal force incidents by the police. Prior scholarship suggests that that controversial incidents involving police use of force can engender distrust of the police. Further, the neighborhood effects literature has demonstrated the importance of community context for police-community relationships and differential responses to controversial incidents by neighborhoods. The current study assesses how communities of varying racial compositions and levels of economic disadvantage respond to police fatal force incidents by assessing neighborhood crime reporting behaviors. Using monthly 911 call data from Los Angeles, CA neighborhoods, this study explores this relationship with a series of fixed effects negative binomial regression models that model police homicides and crime reporting over a seven-year time period. Comparisons between neighborhoods of varying racial/ethnic composition and structural conditions permit the comparison of differential responses across neighborhood context. The results indicate that neighborhood crime reporting decreases following fatal police use of force incidents. Further, these responses varied across neighborhood contexts. Predominately Hispanic neighborhoods experienced greater declines in crime reporting compared to predominately White neighborhoods. Neighborhoods characterized by high levels of concentrated disadvantaged also experienced greater reductions in crime reporting compared to their more advantaged counterparts. Utilization of the formal legal system can be challenged by controversial police incidents; however, these effects are dependent on neighborhood context. Future research should explore how spatial proximity and media portrayal of incidents influence community responses.

Exploring Differences in the Experiences, Perceptions and Reporting of Violent Incidents in Australia by Country of Birth.

Australia's fast-growing migrant population encompasses many groups from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds. It is well documented that these groups experience varying pre- and post-migratory challenges. Despite this knowledge, little is known about the extent to which these groups experience and perceive violence and how or whether they seek assistance after such incidents. It is important to identify any potential discrepancies to ensure that services can provide the most targeted supports to victims. Data were collected from the 2016 Australian Bureau of Statistics Public Safety Survey. Using chi-square tests, prevalence, experiences, and perceptions of violence occurring after the age of 15, postincident support, reporting behaviors, and health variables related to violent incidents were compared across three cultural groups arranged by region of birth: born in Australia (BIA), born overseas in main English-speaking countries (BNMESC), and born overseas in non-English-speaking countries (BOC). BOC individuals reported much lower rates of violent victimization compared to BIA and BMSEC individuals. More than two-thirds of each cultural group did not report their most recent experience of violence to police. Violence was most commonly experienced at home, although a higher proportion of BIA individuals experienced violence at an entertainment venue, and a higher proportion of BOC individuals experienced violence outside (i.e., in the street). The contribution of Alcohol/Substances was much higher for BIA and BMESC compared to BOC individuals. BOC individuals experienced more anxiety post-incident, while more BIA individuals sustained physical injuries. A similar proportion of each group sought assistance post-incident, however, more BOC individuals had never told anyone about the incident. Perceptions of the violent incident were generally similar across groups, though fewer BOC individuals perceived the incident to be a crime. Some differences were apparent across cultural groups regarding the prevalence, experiences and reporting of violent incidents. Implications and future research directions are discussed within.

Asymmetrical gendered crime reporting and its influence on readers: A case study of Pakistani English newspapers.

Media plays a crucial role in information dissemination, reflection, or mass attitude in the growing economies. The present study intends to explore the representation of women in crime reporting and its influence on readership. A mixed-method approach is followed in data collection and analysis. Data are collected from four English newspapers over one month, and crime reports are analysed through discourse analysis and content analysis to identify the gender portrayal. Moreover, the readers' opinion is sought through semi-structured interviews with six experts from diverse fields. Recorded and transcribed data is analysed thematically. Findings show that women are underrepresented in crime reports, and their portrayal also strengthens gender stereotypes. Such representation affects the mental schema of readers, which in turn supports patriarchal order.

Impacts of Canada's cannabis legalization on police-reported crime among youth: early evidence.

AIMS: Canada's 2018 Cannabis Act allows youth (age 12-17 years) to possess up to 5 g of dried cannabis (or equivalent) for personal consumption/sharing. This study assessed whether the Cannabis Act was associated with changes in police-reported cannabis offences among youth in Canada. DESIGN: Time series model using national daily criminal incident data from January 1, 2015-December 31, 2018 from the Canadian Uniform Crime Reporting Survey (UCR-2). Seasonal autoregressive integrated moving average time series models, stratified by sex, assessed the relations between legalization and youth cannabis-related offences. SETTING: Canada, 2015-2018. CASES: Police-reported cannabis-related offenses among youth age 12-17 years (male, n = 32 178; female, n = 9001). MEASUREMENTS: Outcomes: police-reported cannabis-related crimes, property crimes, and violent crimes. Covariate: calendar-month. FINDINGS: For females, legalization was associated with a step-effect decrease of 4.56 (95% confidence interval [CI] = 3.32, 5.81; P < 0.001) police-reported cannabis-related criminal offences per day, an effect equivalent to a 64.6% (standard error [SE] = 33.5%) reduction. For males, legalization was associated with a drop of 12.73 (95% CI = 8.82, 16.64; P < 0.001) cannabis-related offences per day, equaling a decrease of 57.7% (SE = 22.6%). Results were inconclusive as to whether there were associations between cannabis legalization and patterns of property crimes or violent crimes. CONCLUSIONS: Implementation of the Cannabis Act in Canada in 2018 appears to have been associated with decreases of 55%-65% in cannabis-related crimes among male and female youth.

Gender Interaction Effects on Reporting Assaults to the Police.

This study used two theoretical perspectives-coercive power and gender norms-to examine how gender affects victims' decisions to report physical assaults to the police. The coercive power perspective attributes gender differences in reporting to sex-linked physical coercive power differences that affect the harm of the crime and victims' personal safety. The gender norm perspective attributes gender differences in reporting to specific gender norms that influence crime reporting decisions. Using a sample of 18,627 nonintimate partner physical assaults from the National Crime Victimization Survey (1993-2015), crime reporting models demonstrated significantly better fit when they included the interaction between the victim's gender and the offender's gender than when they included only the main effects. In the sample, (a) female victims were 21.9% more likely to report to the police when the offender was male (vs. female) and (b) male victims were 45.8% more likely to report to the police when the offender was female (vs. male). Victims' tendency to report an opposite-sex offender to the police was strongest in simple assaults and absent in aggravated assaults. We conclude that male and female victims' reporting behaviors were most consistent with gender norms that encourage the use of self-help violence and discourage police reporting in intragender assaults. Consistent with this explanation, self-help violence was negatively related to crime reporting in assaults. Victims were more likely to use self-help violence and avoid reporting to the police against a same-sex offender than an opposite-sex offender. Finally, the offender's gender had a relatively stronger influence on assault victims' decisions to use self-help violence than on victims' decisions to take no action against the offender (i.e., not reporting to the police or using self-help violence).

Frequency, Nature, and Correlates of Hate Crime Victimization Experiences in an Urban Sample of Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Community Members.

The present study examines two central research questions. First, we sought to add to current knowledge on the frequency and types of hate crime experiences in an urban sample. Also, drawing on existing frameworks for sexual minority specific (SMS) stress, we examined internalized SMS stress (defined by internalized homophobia and acceptance concerns regarding one's minority status) as a mediator of the association between hate crime victimization (i.e., objective or social SMS stress) and mental health symptoms (i.e., symptoms of depression, anxiety, and general stress). Participants were 336 self-identified lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) community members who elected to participate in research at a community health agency in an urban southwestern United States jurisdiction. Results suggested (a) approximately one third of the sample reported lifetime hate crime victimization, with the most common types characterized by interpersonal, as opposed to property, crimes; (b) approximately half of participants reported their most recent victimization to law enforcement; and (c) internalized SMS stress mediated the relation between hate crime victimization and overall mental health symptoms. Findings are discussed with respect to implications of the unique nature of hate crimes in an urban setting, as well as theoretical and practical implications of SMS stress findings.

Crime Reporting Behavior: Do Attitudes Toward the Police Matter?

Police researchers have long argued that favorable evaluations of the police eventually lead to citizens' willingness to cooperate with the police. However, this assumption has barely been studied empirically. The current study examines the association between attitudes toward the police and crime reporting behavior of victims. Furthermore, the study explores the influence of victims' characteristics on their decisions to report crime to the police. Using field data originally collected in Ghana, the study found that victims' levels of confidence in the police and satisfaction with police work positively predict their decisions to report sexual assault and robbery to the police. Moreover, findings revealed that age, marital status, and employment status are important predictors of victims' reporting behavior. Several practical and theoretical implications of the results are discussed.

An Exploratory Examination of College Students' Likelihood of Reporting Sexual Assault to Police and University Officials: Results of a Self-Report Survey.

Despite the growing salience of sexual assault victimizations on college campuses, reporting of such events remains low. A better understanding of what affects students' reporting behavior and to whom they are likely to report victimizations can aid in developing policies and programs that promote reporting. Using a sample of 336 college students, this study uses hypothetical scenarios to examine the factors that affect individuals' likelihood to report sexual assaults to the police and to university officials. Results show that students are significantly more likely to report sexual assaults to the police than to university officials. In addition, wanting justice, trust in police and university officials, and a desire for services are among the most consistent factors that affect students' likelihood to report to both the police and university officials.

Silence Speaks: The Relationship between Immigration and the Underreporting of Crime.

Scarce in criminological literature is an exploration of whether crime reporting varies geographically. Yet, there are substantive reasons to believe not only that the percentage of crimes reported to the police varies across jurisdictions, but also that crime reporting can be explained by ecological characteristics. Drawing upon data from both the National Crime Victimization Survey and the census, this study examines the relationship between immigration and the likelihood that crimes are reported to the police. Results indicate that crime reporting is inversely related to increases in the rates of noncitizens and foreign-born residents within a metropolitan area, and that the negative effect is greater for violence than for property crime. Implications for policing and public safety are discussed.