A NEW EIMERIA SPECIES (APICOMPLEXA: EIMERIIDAE) PARASITIZING COMMERCIAL CHUKAR PARTRIDGES (ALECTORIS CHUKAR) IN SOUTHERN ONTARIO.

A commercial producer hatching and rearing chukar partridges (Alectoris chukar) in Ontario, Canada had flocks experiencing coccidiosis. Microscopic analysis of Eimeria species isolated from a field sample indicated the presence of 2 distinct oocyst morphotypes; the most abundant species was determined to be Eimeria chapmani, based on oocyst morphology and sequence-based genotyping, and the less abundant, second Eimeria sp. was an undescribed parasite. Oocysts of the unknown Eimeria sp. were large and oval-shaped; dimensions averaged 27.9 µm by 17.0 µm (shape index = 1.65 µm). Oocysts contained at least 1 polar granule and 4 almond-shaped sporocysts with average dimensions measuring 12.5 µm by 6.9 µm (shape index = 1.83). Each sporocyst featured a Stieda body, sub-Stieda body, and sporocyst residuum; a sporocyst contained 2 sporozoites that each possessed a small anterior refractile body and a larger posterior refractile body. Virtually all oocysts sporulated after 24 hr when suspended in potassium dichromate at room temperature (22 C) on a rotary platform. Experimental infections with various doses of oocysts demonstrated elevated parasite shedding from birds gavaged with higher challenge doses; fecundity generally decreased in heavier infections. The approximate prepatent period of the parasite was 4-5 days (unsporulated oocysts observed histologically at 90 hr postinfection and in feces by day 5) and patency lasted until day 12 postinfection. To characterize the endogenous development of the Eimeria sp., tissues were collected at 8 regions along the intestinal tract (including the ceca and rectum) every 6 hr throughout the estimated prepatent period. Parasites were observed to infect the descending and ascending duodenum, midjejunum, proximal and distal ileum, and the ceca. The endogenous stages identified included intracellular sporozoites, 3 generations of merogony, and gametogonic stages. Sequences of the mitochondrial genome (GenBank MW934555) and nuclear 18S ribosomal DNA (GenBank MW934259) were obtained using polymerase chain reaction amplification for Sanger sequencing, and these were unique from all published sequences on GenBank. Molecular data, in conjunction with the unique biology of the Eimeria sp. isolated from the chukar partridge flock, support that this coccidium is new to science.

The effects of stocking density on growth, morphological development, behavior, and welfare parameters in pheasants (Phasianus colchicus).

In pheasants, which are generally raised in large flocks, stocking density is important for their growth and development, normal behavior and welfare. But there is still a lack of information on the optimum stocking density for game birds. This research was conducted on a total of 200 pheasants to examine the effects of low (5 pheasant/m2) and high (10 pheasant/m2) stocking density rearing practices on body weight, morphological development, behavioral characteristics and welfare parameters such as foot-pad dermatitis and plumage quality. When we look at the study results, it was determined that the density of stocking did not make a difference in the first 13 weeks of age, but pheasants reared at low density at the ages of 14-16 weeks reached higher body weight. In terms of body weight at 14, 15, and 16 weeks, the low stocking density group had an average of approximately 41, 71, and 94 g higher than the high stocking density group, respectively (p<0.05). It had been found that low density provides better morphological development. The low group was found to be significantly higher than the high group in terms of ornithological size, wingspan, back length, tail length, head length and head width, 5.9 cm, 2 cm, 1.3 cm, 7.6 cm, 1.7 mm and 1 mm, respectively (p<0.05). Since the animals in the low group had more individual space, they had the opportunity to perch and therefore exhibit more passive behavior. On the other hand, pheasants in the low group exhibited higher levels of aggressive behavior (p<0.05). More foraging behavior was observed in the higher group and the low-density group consumed more feed in the 14th week (p<0.05). But no significant differences were detected between groups in terms of feed consumption in other weeks (p>0.05). A 1.12 point higher score was calculated in the low group compared to the high group, especially in terms of tail feather quality, and as a result, pheasants reared in low stocking density had better plumage quality (p<0.05). It had been determined that as the stocking density decreases in the rearing of pheasants, they exhibit easier flight and roosting behaviors and therefore they were less affected by feather pecking behavior and had better feather quality. In addition, it had been determined that pheasants grow and develop better in this group, which had more rest opportunities. In conclusion, rearing at low stocking density is recommended for better fattening performance and better welfare conditions.

Game Birds Can Act as Intermediaries of Virulent Genotype VII Avian Orthoavulavirus-1 between Wild Birds and Domestic Poultry.

Newcastle Disease (ND), caused by virulent forms of Avian orthoavulavirus serotype-1 (AOAV-1) is an economically important avian disease worldwide. The past two incursions of ND into the United Kingdom occurred in game bird populations during 2005 and 2006. The nature of the game bird semi-feral rearing system, which can bring these birds into close contact with both wild birds and commercial or backyard poultry, has been hypothesized to act as a bridge between these two environments. As such, the risk that AOAV-1-infected game birds may pose to the UK poultry industry was investigated. Pheasants, partridges and chickens were experimentally infected with the virulent strain APMV-1/Chicken/Bulgaria/112/13, a genotype VII.2 virus associated with ND outbreaks in Eastern Europe. The study demonstrated that both chickens and pheasants are susceptible to infection with APMV-1/Chicken/Bulgaria/112/13, which results in high mortality and onward transmission. Partridges by contrast are susceptible to infection, but mortality was reduced, as was onward transmission. However, the data indicated that both pheasants and partridges may serve as intermediate hosts of AOAV-1 and may bridge the wild bird-domestic poultry interface enabling transmission into an economically damaging environment where morbidity and mortality may be high.

Comparative pathogenesis of two genotype VI.2 avian paramyxovirus type-1 viruses (APMV-1) in pheasants, partridges and chickens.

Newcastle disease (ND) is caused by virulent forms of avian paramyxovirus-1 (APMV-1) and is an economically important disease of poultry world-wide. Pigeon paramyxovirus 1 (PPMV-1), a sub-group of APMV-1 is endemic in Columbiformes and can cause infections of poultry. An outbreak of ND in partridges in Scotland, UK, in 2006 (APMV-1/partridge/UK(Scotland)/7575/06) was identified as a class II, genotype VI.2.1.1.2.1, more commonly associated with PPMV-1. It has been hypothesized that game birds may be a route of transmission into commercial poultry settings due to the semi-feral rearing system, which potentially brings them into contact with both wild-birds and poultry species. Therefore, the pathogenesis and transmission of APMV-1/partridge/UK(Scotland)/7575/06 in game birds and chickens was investigated, and compared to a contemporary PPMV-1 isolate, PPMV-1/pigeon/UK/015874/15. Viral shedding and seroconversion profiles demonstrated that pheasants were susceptible to infection with APMV-1/partridge/UK(Scotland)/7575/06 with limited clinical signs observed although they were able to excrete and transmit virus. In contrast, partridges and pheasants showed limited infection with PPMV-1/pigeon/UK/015874/15, causing mild clinical disease. Chickens, however, were productively infected and were able to transmit virus in the absence of clinical signs. From the data, it can be deduced that whilst game birds may play a role in the transmission and epidemiology of genotype VI.2 APMV-1 viruses, the asymptomatic nature of circulation within these species precludes evaluation of natural infection by clinical surveillance. It therefore remains a possibility that genotype VI.2 APMV-1 infection in game birds has the potential for asymptomatic circulation and remains a potential threat to avian production systems.RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS Demonstration of infection of game birds with Pigeon paramyxovirus-1 (PPMV-1).There are differing dynamics of infection between different game bird species.Differing dynamics of infection between different PPMV-1 isolates and genotypes in game birds and chickens.

Where have all the grouse ticks gone? Apparent decline in collections of Haemaphysalis chordeilis Packard.

Haemaphysalis chordeilis Packard, also known as the grouse or bird tick, is a three-host tick native to North America. Literature from the early 20th century reported a widespread distribution of this tick across the US and Canada. As its name implies, ground-dwelling birds such as grouse and quail were frequent hosts, and occasionally large infestations were reported in domestic flocks making it a pest of economic importance. However, after the mid-1900's records of this species appear scarce, and a number of more recent studies of ticks on birds (including ostensibly favored host species) did not detect it. To confirm this perception with data, we conducted a literature search for collection records of this species and compared the records across two eras (pre-1965 and post-1965), finding very few records of H. chordeilis in recent years, despite increased attention brought to this genus by the detection of exotic Haemaphysalis longicornis Neumann populations in the eastern US. We also compiled a list of studies after 1965 that examined appropriate hosts for ectoparasites but failed to find H. chordeilis. We interpret the apparent decline of ticks in the context of documented population declines in several major host species over the same time frame and discuss whether ectoparasite populations should be subject to the same conservation consideration as their hosts.

Health surveillance of a potential bridge host: Pathogen exposure risks posed to avian populations augmented with captive-bred pheasants.

Augmentation of wild populations with captive-bred individuals presents an inherent risk of co-introducing novel pathogens to naïve species, but it can be an important tool for supplementing small or declining populations. Game species used for human enterprise and recreation such as the ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) are commonly raised in captivity and released onto public and private wildlands as a method of augmenting naturalized pheasant populations. This study presents findings on pathogen exposure from three sources of serological data collected in California during 2014-2017 including (a) 71 pen-reared pheasants sampled across seven game bird breeding farms, (b) six previously released pen-reared pheasants captured at two study sites where wild pheasants occurred and (c) 79 wild pheasants captured across six study sites. In both pen-reared and wild pheasants, antibodies were detected against haemorrhagic enteritis virus (HEV), infectious laryngotracheitis (ILT), infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV), paramyxovirus type 1 (PMV-1) and Pasteurella multocida (PM). Previously released pen-reared pheasants were seropositive for HEV, ILT, and PM. Generalized linear mixed models accounting for intraclass correlation within groups indicated that pen-reared pheasants were more than twice as likely to test positive for HEV antibodies. Necropsy and ancillary diagnostics were performed in addition to serological testing on 40 pen-reared pheasants sampled from five of the seven farms. Pheasants from three of these farms tested positive by PCR for Siadenovirus, the causative agent of both haemorrhagic enteritis in turkeys and marble spleen disease of pheasants, which are serologically indistinguishable. Following necropsy, owners from the five farms were surveyed regarding husbandry and biosecurity practices. Farms ranged in size from 10,000 to more than 100,000 birds, two farms raised other game bird species on premises, and two farms used some form of vaccination. Biosecurity practices varied by farm, but the largest farm implemented the strictest practices.

DESCRIPTION OF A NEW EIMERIA SPECIES (APICOMPLEXA: EIMERIIDAE) RESPONSIBLE FOR CLINICAL COCCIDIOSIS IN COMMERCIAL CHUKAR PARTRIDGE (ALECTORIS CHUKAR).

Recurrent coccidiosis affecting a commercial chukar partridge (Alectoris chukar) farm in Ontario, Canada was investigated. The responsible pathogenic Eimeria species was isolated for biological characterization. The uniformity of oocyst morphometrics supported that only a single Eimeria sp. was present. Experimental infections with coccidia-free chukars were used to describe exogenous and endogenous developmental stages of the parasite. The prepatent period of the causative Eimeria species was 5 days and patency lasted 11 days; fecundity was 1,573 to 30,057, with the highest fecundity recorded with the lowest challenge dose. Endogenous development was elucidated histologically from samples collected at 8 locations along the intestinal tract at 26 time points throughout prepatency. The parasite had 5 asexual generations before oocyst formation that were located from the mid-jejunum to the mid-rectum and in the ceca. Sporulation of oocysts suspended in potassium dichromate at room temperature (22 C) occurred within 24 hr. Oocysts (n = 50) averaged 21.8 by 18.6 µm and featured a polar granule; sporocysts (n = 50) averaged 10.9 by 7.1 µm and possessed a Stieda body, sub-Stieda body, sporozoite refractile bodies, and sporocyst residuum. Comparisons with described Eimeria spp. infecting partridges suggest that the biological features of this pathogenic species are unique; similarly, sequences from both mitochondrial and nuclear loci support the naming of this new Eimeria species.

Is Hay for the Birds? Investigating Landowner Willingness to Time Hay Harvests for Grassland Bird Conservation.

Birds in agricultural environments have exhibited steep global population declines in recent decades, and effective conservation strategies targeting their populations are urgently needed. In grasslands used for hay production, breeding birds' nest success improves substantially if hay harvests are delayed until after mid-July. However, few studies have investigated private hay producers' willingness to alter their harvesting practices, which is a critical factor for bird conservation where most land is privately owned, such as in the North American Great Plains. We surveyed Nebraska hay producers to examine whether livestock production, wildlife knowledge, and hunting activity affects their willingness to alter haying practices for bird conservation. The majority (60%) of respondents expressed willingness to delay harvesting hay to allow birds time to nest successfully. Livestock producers and those more knowledgeable about wildlife were more willing to delay hay harvests, whereas active hunters were less willing to do so. Our findings suggest that a majority of private producers show a high potential for engaging in grassland bird conservation activities. Landowners' willingness to participate in bird conservation programs and actions could be further encouraged through extension and education efforts connecting hay producers with information, support, and funding for bird conservation.

Game bird consumption in Dene communities of the Northwest Territories, Canada.

OBJECTIVE: Game bird consumption is an important part of the diet of Indigenous populations in Canada and, as part of country food consumption, is associated with improved nutritional status. The objective of this project was to document the consumption of game birds for Dene First Nations in the Northwest Territories (NWT), Canada. DESIGN: Participants were invited to complete a FFQ using an iPad to document the types of country foods consumed, as well as consumption frequency and preparation methods, including thirteen types of game birds. SETTING: The project was implemented in nine communities in the Dehcho and Sahtú regions of the NWT, Canada. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 237 children and adult participants from Dene First Nations in the Mackenzie Valley region of the NWT took part in the current study. RESULTS: FFQ findings indicated that game birds were frequently consumed in both Dehcho and Sahtú communities. Canada goose and mallard were found to be consumed by the largest number of participants. Five different species (including Canada goose and mallard) were found to be consumed by at least 25 % of participants over the last year. When consuming game birds, most participants reported consuming the meat as well as most, if not all, other parts of the bird. CONCLUSIONS: Differences were observed since the last country food assessment in the 1990s in the same regions. These findings increase knowledge of the current Dene diet patterns and support the understanding of diet transition.

Radiocesium in Canadian game Birds Harvested during 1989-95.

A historic data set containing unpublished measurements of 137Cs (radiocesium) in 238 pooled samples of pectoral muscle from 1892 birds representing 37 species was analyzed in order to determine if (i) birds were contaminated due to global weapons fallout and/or the Chernobyl accident, (ii) to understand baseline 137Cs levels in birds across the country by examining potential effects of trophic position and geophysical region, and (iii) to determine if the harvested birds were safe to eat. Current work is taking advantage of this data set to improve capabilities to assess the impacts of releases of radionuclides on food chains of species harvested as country food. Samples obtained from 173 locations across Canada (including locations in the Arctic), mostly during the fall hunting seasons between 1989 and 1995, were analyzed by gamma spectrometry and decay-corrected for the date of collection. Various methods of correlating measurements with environmental 137Cs levels and species' habits were explored in order to determine environmental radiological transfer factors. All 137Cs measurements in the samples were much lower than the Health Canada (2018) guidance level for 137Cs (1000 Bq kg-1); therefore, there was no evidence of a human health risk with respect to radiocesium. Environmental transfer factors for six different foraging groups were determined.

Surveillance for Borrelia spp. in Upland Game Birds in Pennsylvania, USA.

The Borrelia genus contains two major clades, the Lyme borreliosis group, which includes the causative agents of Lyme disease/borreliosis (B. burgdorferi sensu stricto and other related B. burgdorferi sensu lato genospecies), and the relapsing fever borreliosis group (B. hermsii, B. turicatae, and B. parkeri). Other unclassified reptile- and echidna-associated Borrelia spp. (i.e., B. turcica and 'Candidatus Borrelia tachyglossi', respectively) do not belong in either of these two groups. In North America, Borrelia spp. from both of the major clades are important pathogens of veterinary and public health concern. Lyme disease is of particular interest because the incidence in the northeastern United States continues to increase in both dogs and humans. Birds have a potentially important role in the ecology of Borrelia species because they are hosts for numerous tick vectors and competent hosts for various Borrelia spp. Our goal was to investigate the prevalence of Borrelia spp. in four free-living species of upland game birds in Pennsylvania, USA including wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo), ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus), ring-necked pheasants (Phasianus colchicus), and American woodcock (Scolopax minor). We tested 205 tissue samples (bone marrow and/or spleen samples) from 169 individuals for Borrelia using a flagellin gene (flab) nested PCR, which amplifies all Borrelia species. We detected Borrelia DNA in 12% (24/205) of samples, the highest prevalence was in wild turkeys (16%; 5/31), followed by ruffed grouse (13%; 16/126) and American woodcock (3%; 1/35). All pheasants (n = 13) were negative. We sequenced amplicons from all positive game birds and all were B. burgdorferi sensu stricto. Our results support previous work indicating that certain species of upland game birds are commonly infected with Borrelia species, but unlike previous studies, we did not find any relapsing fever borreliae.

A multispecies approach to manage effects of land cover and weather on upland game birds.

Loss and degradation of grasslands in the Great Plains region have resulted in major declines in abundance of grassland bird species. To ensure future viability of grassland bird populations, it is crucial to evaluate specific effects of environmental factors among species to determine drivers of population decline and develop effective conservation strategies. We used threshold models to quantify the effects of land cover and weather changes in "lesser prairie-chicken" and "greater prairie-chicken" (Tympanuchus pallidicinctus and T. cupido, respectively), northern bobwhites (Colinus virginianus), and ring-necked pheasants (Phasianus colchicus). We demonstrated a novel approach for estimating landscape conditions needed to optimize abundance across multiple species at a variety of spatial scales. Abundance of all four species was highest following wet summers and dry winters. Prairie chicken and ring-necked pheasant abundance was highest following cool winters, while northern bobwhite abundance was highest following warm winters. Greater prairie chicken and northern bobwhite abundance was also highest following cooler summers. Optimal abundance of each species occurred in landscapes that represented a grassland and cropland mosaic, though prairie chicken abundance was optimized in landscapes with more grassland and less edge habitat than northern bobwhites and ring-necked pheasants. Because these effects differed among species, managing for an optimal landscape for multiple species may not be the optimal scenario for any one species.

Lead in terrestrial game birds from Spain.

We analysed exposure to Pb and its relationship with lead-based ammunition in seven species of terrestrial game birds-common woodpigeon (Columba palumbus), rock dove (Columba livia), stock dove (Columba oenas), European turtle-dove (Streptopelia turtur), red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa), Barbary partridge (Alectoris barbara) and common quail (Coturnix coturnix)-from rural and urban areas in different parts of Spain (Valencia, Castilla-La Mancha, Castilla y León, Madrid, Islas Canarias and Navarra). A total of 530 liver samples were analysed, and the presence of Pb pellets was studied in the crop, gizzard and intestine; the state and appearance of these organs were also analysed. The number of specimens suspected to have ingested Pb shot was 28 (5.6%), and the geometric mean concentration of hepatic Pb was 0.054 µg g-1 (wet weight, ww). A low percentage of samples (4.8%) were above the abnormal exposure threshold (0.65 µg g-1 ww), and, in these specimens, renal Pb concentrations were determined. Common woodpigeons and rock doves from Madrid were found to have high concentrations of Pb in their livers, and, so, both species can be considered to be good bioindicators of Pb contamination in rural (common woodpigeons) and urban (rock doves) environments. Partridges bred for hunting may be more prone to ingesting pellets from the environment, a fact that should be taken into account in management decisions.

Analysis of geographic location and pathways for influenza A virus infection of commercial upland game bird and conventional poultry farms in the United States of America.

BACKGROUND: Avian influenza (AI) is an infectious viral disease that affects several species and has zoonotic potential. Due to its associated health and economic repercussions, minimizing AI outbreaks is important. However, most control measures are generic and mostly target pathways important for the conventional poultry farms producing chickens, turkeys, and eggs and may not target other pathways that may be specific to the upland game bird sector. The goal of this study is to provide evidence to support the development of novel strategies for sector-specific AI control by comparing and contrasting practices and potential pathways for spread in upland game bird farms with those for conventional poultry farms in the United States. Farm practices and processes, seasonality of activities, geographic location and inter-farm distance were analyzed across the sectors. All the identified differences were framed and discussed in the context of their associated pathways for virus introduction into the farm and subsequent between-farm spread. RESULTS: Differences stemming from production systems and seasonality, inter-farm distance and farm densities were evident and these could influence both fomite-mediated and local-area spread risks. Upland game bird farms operate under a single, independent owner rather than being contracted with or owned by a company with other farms as is the case with conventional poultry. The seasonal marketing of upland game birds, largely driven by hunting seasons, implies that movements are seasonal and customer-vendor dynamics vary between industry groups. Farm location analysis revealed that, on average, an upland game bird premises was 15.42 km away from the nearest neighboring premises with birds compared to 3.74 km for turkey premises. Compared to turkey premises, the average poultry farm density in a radius of 10 km of an upland game bird premises was less than a half, and turkey premises were 3.8 times (43.5% compared with 11.5%) more likely to fall within a control area during the 2015 Minnesota outbreak. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that the existing differences in the seasonality of production, isolated geographic location and epidemiological seclusion of farms influence AI spread dynamics and therefore disease control measures should be informed by these and other factors to achieve success.

Mortality-Based Triggers and Premovement Testing Protocols for Detection of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Virus Infection in Commercial Upland Game Birds.

Outbreaks involving avian influenza viruses are often devastating to the poultry industry economically and otherwise. Disease surveillance is critically important because it facilitates timely detection and generates confidence that infected birds are not moved during business continuity intended to mitigate associated economic losses. The possibility of using an abnormal increase in daily mortality to levels that exceed predetermined thresholds as a trigger to initiate further diagnostic investigations for highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) virus infection in the flock is explored. The range of optimal mortality thresholds varies by bird species, trigger type, and mortality thresholds, and these should be considered when assessing sector-specific triggers. The study uses purposefully collected data and data from the literature to determine optimal mortality triggers for HPAI detection in commercial upland game bird flocks. Three trigger types were assessed for the ability to detect rapidly both HPAI (on the basis of disease-induced and normal mortality data) and false alarm rate (on the basis of normal mortality data); namely, 1) exceeding a set absolute threshold on one day, 2) exceeding a set absolute threshold on two consecutive days, or 3) exceeding a multiple of a seven-day moving average. The likelihood of disease detection using some of these triggers together with premovement real-time reverse transcription PCR (rRT-PCR) testing was examined. Results indicate that the performance of the two consecutive days trigger had the best metrics (i.e., rapid detection with few false alarms) in the trade-off analysis. The collected normal mortality data was zero on 66% of all days recorded, with an overall mean of 0.6 dead birds per day. In the surveillance scenario analyses, combining the default protocol that relied only on active surveillance (i.e., premovement testing of oropharyngeal swab samples from dead birds by rRT-PCR) together with either of the mortality-based triggers improved detection rates on all days postexposure before scheduled movement. For exposures occurring within 8 days of movement, the protocol that combined the default with single-day triggers had slightly more detections than that with two consecutive days triggers. However, all assessed protocol combinations were able to detect all infections that occurred more than 10 days before scheduled movement. These findings can inform risk-based decisions pertaining to continuity of business in the commercial upland game bird industry.

Activadores basados en la mortalidad y protocolos de pruebas de premovimiento para la detección de la infección del virus de influenza aviar altamente patógena en aves de caza de tierras altas comerciales Los brotes que involucran virus de influenza aviar a menudo son económicamente devastadores para la industria avícola. La vigilancia de enfermedades es de importancia crítica porque facilita la detección oportuna y genera confianza en que las aves infectadas no serán movilizadas para continuar con la operación de las industrias avícolas para mitigar las pérdidas económicas asociadas. Se explora la posibilidad de utilizar un aumento anormal en la mortalidad diaria a niveles que excedan umbrales predeterminados como un desencadenante para iniciar investigaciones de diagnóstico para la infección del virus de la influenza aviar altamente patógena en la parvada. El rango de umbrales de mortalidad óptimos varían según la especie de ave, el tipo de activador y los umbrales de mortalidad y estos deben considerarse al evaluar los activadores específicos del sector. El estudio utiliza datos recopilados de manera planeada y datos de la literatura para determinar los desencadenantes de mortalidad óptimos para la detección de la influenza aviar altamente patógena en las parvadas comerciales de aves de caza de tierras altas. Se evaluaron tres activadores de acuerdo a su capacidad de detectar rápidamente influenza aviar altamente patógena (en función de los datos de mortalidad normal e inducida por la enfermedad) y la tasa de falsa alarma (en función de los datos de mortalidad normal); como son, 1) que se exceda un umbral absoluto establecido en un día, 2) que se exceda un umbral absoluto establecido en dos días consecutivos, o 3) que excede un múltiplo de un promedio móvil de siete días. Se examinó la probabilidad de detección de la enfermedad utilizando algunos de estos desencadenantes junto con la prueba de transcripción reversa y PCR en tiempo real (rRT-PCR). Los resultados indicaron que el rendimiento del disparador de dos días consecutivos tuvo los mejores resultados (es decir, detección rápida con pocas falsas alarmas) en el análisis costo-beneficio. Los datos de mortalidad normal recopilados fueron cero en el 66% de todos los días registrados, con una media general de 0.6 aves muertas por día. En los análisis de escenarios de vigilancia, la combinación del protocolo predeterminado que se basó únicamente en la vigilancia activa (por ejemplo pruebas antes de movilizaciones con muestras de hisopos orofaríngeos por rRT-PCR de aves muertas) a la par con cualquiera de los desencadenantes basados en la mortalidad mejoraron las tasas de detección en todos los días posteriores a la exposición antes del movimiento programado. Para las exposiciones que ocurrieron dentro de los ocho días de movimiento, el protocolo que combinó el valor predeterminado con los activadores de un solo día tuvo un poco más de detecciones que el de los activadores de dos días consecutivos. Sin embargo, todas las combinaciones de protocolos evaluadas pudieron detectar todas las infecciones que ocurrieron por más de 10 días antes del movimiento programado. Estos hallazgos pueden proveer información para la toma de decisiones basadas en el riesgo relacionadas con la continuidad de operaciones en la industria comercial de aves de caza de tierras altas.

Semen collection, semen analysis and artificial insemination in Columbian sharp-tailed grouse (Tympanuchus phasianellus columbianus) as part of a species conservation project.

Columbian sharp-tailed grouse (Tympanuchus phasianellus columbianus; hereafter CSTG) have experienced substantial decreases in population numbers and geographic range during the early 20th century, primarily due to habitat loss. The conservation aim of this project was to re-establish a self-sustaining population of CSTG within an unoccupied portion of their historic range in northeastern Nevada via reintroduction from source populations in Idaho, USA. Female nest initiation rates post-translocation due to low fertilization rates are believed to be one limiting factor in the establishment of some translocated CSTG populations. However, studies on semen collection and artificial insemination in this species are absent. Assisted reproduction was evaluated as an additional tool in this species conservation project in order to gain knowledge on the reproductive status of yearling and adult male CSTG, establish orientation values for semen parameters and evaluate artificial insemination procedures on female CSTG. In two consecutive breeding seasons, semen collection was attempted 51 times in 47 males using the established massage method, and a novel electro-stimulation technique. Semen collection was successful in all attempts, even in yearling grouse, which represents a novel confirmation that yearling male CSTG can produce live spermatozoa in their first breeding season. Volume, color, consistency, contamination, pH of semen, and the motility, concentration, viability and morphology of spermatozoa were analyzed. Extracted semen volume ranged between 6 and 74 µl and the mean pH was 6.9 ±â€¯0.5 (x¯ ± SD). Morphology analysis revealed that on average, 42.8% of sperm was morphologically normal, but 34.8% had malformed tails. Additionally, artificial insemination was practiced in 17 females (sham-insemination group; insemination lacking spermatozoa) and performed in 17 females. Intravenous catheters G20 1.0 mm × 32 mm enabled safe intravaginal insemination under visual control. Significant (p ≤ 0.05) differences in semen parameters between adult and yearling birds were detected. It is well established that adult males receive a majority of copulations during lekking, but our novel findings also indicate that they produce significantly more spermatozoa which is of higher quality than yearling males. This finding offers insights into male reproductive biology in a lekking grouse species.

Avian Influenza in the U.S. Commercial Upland Game Bird Industry: An Analysis of Selected Practices as Potential Exposure Pathways and Surveillance System Data Reporting.

Producing a smaller yield of higher-value birds compared to conventional poultry production, the U.S. commercial upland game bird industry deals primarily in the sale of live birds for recreational hunting. In this study, our aims were to gain insights into the occurrence of avian influenza (AI) in the U.S. commercial upland game bird industry in comparison to other poultry sectors, to identify the presence of the specific AI risk factors in the practices of raising ducks on site and having connections to live bird markets (LBMs), and to assess how AI surveillance systems may have played a role in the reporting of the presence of exposure pathway-related information. We found that 23 AI epizootics involving upland game bird premises were reported, compared to 485 epizootics in the other poultry industries, and 86% of epizootics involving upland game birds were limited to only one premises. Regarding specific AI risk factors, 70% of upland game bird epizootics involved one of the two examined practices. In assessing the impact of surveillance systems, data framed around the implementation of surveillance systems revealed that the introduction of active surveillance coincided with the more thorough reporting of both the raising of ducks on site and premises having connections to LBMs. Our results suggest the need for more thorough data collection during epizootics and the need to assess additional exposure pathways specific to the commercial raise-for-release upland game bird industry.