Keyword Extraction: A Modern Perspective.

The goal of keyword extraction is to extract from a text, words, or phrases indicative of what it is talking about. In this work, we look at keyword extraction from a number of different perspectives: Statistics, Automatic Term Indexing, Information Retrieval (IR), Natural Language Processing (NLP), and the emerging Neural paradigm. The 1990s have seen some early attempts to tackle the issue primarily based on text statistics [13, 17]. Meanwhile, in IR, efforts were largely led by DARPA's Topic Detection and Tracking (TDT) project [2]. In this contribution, we discuss how past innovations paved a way for more recent developments, such as LDA, PageRank, and Neural Networks. We walk through the history of keyword extraction over the last 50 years, noting differences and similarities among methods that emerged during the time. We conduct a large meta-analysis of the past literature using datasets from news media, science, and medicine to business and bureaucracy, to draw a general picture of what a successful approach would look like.

INCORPORATING DESIGN WEIGHTS AND HISTORICAL DATA INTO MODEL-BASED SMALL-AREA ESTIMATION.

Bayesian hierarchical regression (BHR) is often used in small area estimation (SAE). BHR conditions on the samples. Therefore, when data are from a complex sample survey, neither survey sampling design nor survey weights are used. This can introduce bias and/or cause large variance. Further, if non-informative priors are used, BHR often requires the combination of multiple years of data to produce sample sizes that yield adequate precision; this can result in poor timeliness and can obscure trends. To address bias and variance, we propose a design assisted model-based approach for SAE by integrating adjusted sample weights. To address timeliness, we use historical data to define informative priors (power prior); this allows estimates to be derived from a single year of data. Using American Community Survey data for validation, we applied the proposed method to Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System data. We estimated the prevalence of disability for all U.S. counties. We show that our method can produce estimates that are both more timely than those arising from widely-used alternatives and are closer to ACS' direct estimates, particularly for low-data counties. Our method can be generalized to estimate the county-level prevalence of other health related measurements.

[The context of health care reforms]. / El contexto de las reformas del sector de la salud.

In Latin America, health sector reforms have gone hand in hand with social and economic trends during the latter half of the twentieth century and have reflected the particular concept of "development" that has been in vogue at different times. Economic stagnation and increased social spending, both hallmarks of the 1960s, led to the decline of the "import substitution" development model, which had prevailed since the beginning of the century, and slowly gave way in the 1980s to the "globalization" model. From the earlier model, a transition took place toward a restructuring of production and a series of economic adjustment policies that led, ironically, to an increase in poverty in Latin America. Implementation of the new model has occurred in two phases. The first, known as the "social reform" or "first generation" phase, sprang from the notion that poverty is the sum of a number of material shortages that can be corrected through an equitable redistribution of a fixed volume of goods belonging to society. This conceptual framework, which was completely devoid of all historical linkages and separated from economic policy, led to social policies whose entire purpose was to mitigate poverty through subsidies targeting the poorest persons in the society. In the second phase of the globalization model, which arose in the 1990s and became known as the "second generation" or "postadjustment" phase, new economic rules came into play that were based primarily on international competition, efficiency in production, and openness and fairness in the capital markets. And if during the initial stage the conceptual strategy behind all social policy was to fight poverty, in the second stage the strategy became one of achieving equity, which was no longer interpreted as the even distribution of a fixed volume of capital goods, but as the sustained provision of greater and better opportunities for all. Having grown accustomed to the protectionism inherent in the earlier development model, Latin American societies today feel threatened by a new model that offers them no social safety net. The feasibility of economic and social reform policies during the second phase, which reflect the demands of a "globalized" world, thus depends on the ability to overcome people's lack of trust and to garner the support of a political, social, and institutional majority.

John Snow: the first hired gun?

The 1854 English cholera outbreak led to reform of Victorian public health legislation, including the Nuisances Removal and Diseases Prevention Act. The reforms threatened the closure of many factories whose fumes were considered hazardous to the public's health. The second witness to appear before the Parliamentary committee considering the reforms was Dr. John Snow. Snow testified on behalf of the manufacturers threatened by the reforms. He stated that the fumes from such establishments were not hazardous. He contended that the workers in these factories did not become ill as a result of their exposures, and therefore these fumes could not be a hazard to the general public's health. Snow also presented data from the 1854 cholera outbreak as the basis for his belief that epidemic diseases were transmitted by water, not air. Although the data concerned cholera, Snow extended the inference to all epidemic diseases. When the committee's report was published, The Lancet chastised Snow in a stinging editorial. Parliament subsequently revised the bill in favor of the manufacturers and passed it into law. The implications of this particular episode in the history of epidemiology are discussed.

The twentieth century: an American sexual history.

PIP: This article reviews the history of American sexuality in the 20th century. Section 1 reveals how the nation dealt with the economic technological and social effects of industrialization at the start of the century. Section 2 examines the second decade of the century, which was characterized by the emergence of social and feminist theorists such as Sigmund Freud, who reevaluated the meaning of sex and sexuality beyond the procreative framework. Section 3 explores the shift in sexual behaviors and attitudes, which began during the 1920s. Practices like dating, necking, and petting became part of growing up and a real form of sexuality education. Sections 4 and 5, respectively, examine American sexuality during the Great Depression and the changes in the sexual landscape during the 1940s. Section 6 offers a glimpse on sexuality in the pop culture decade, when television entered American homes. In this period sexual ethics became a hotly debated issue. Section 7 examines the effect of scientific research on female sexuality. Institutional breakthroughs on human sexuality in 1970s are considered in section 8. During this decade, a new goal for sexual education emerged: the promotion of sexual health. Section 9 reviews the issue of AIDS amidst religious-political extremism, which used the epidemic to advance an anti-homosexuality agenda and push abstinence education in schools. Section 10 describes American sexuality at the end of the 20th century, the availability of school-based sexuality education programs, the public response to the HIV/AIDS epidemic, sexuality and politics, and the role of the Internet.^ieng

Women and ethnic cleansing: a history of Partition in India and Pakistan.

PIP: After the departure of the British, India was divided into a non-Muslim-majority state (India) and a new Muslim-majority entity (Pakistan). This territorial separation of religious communities emerged as the political solution to communal tensions and Muslim claims for a separate state. In this paper, the books ¿Borders and Boundaries: Women in India's Partition¿ by Ritu Menon and Kamla Bhasin and ¿The Other Side of Silence: Voices from the Partition of India¿ by Urvashi Butalia are reviewed. It is noted that these books establish the links between historical Partition events, their dramatic consequences for women, and the reflections of past divisions in the context of more contemporary realities. Overall, from the thoughtful interpretation of the Partition events provided by these books, it is concluded that the division has far from provided appropriate solutions to outstanding problems. It has also been responsible for creating great human distress, but also for inducing the emergence of even more complex issues around the nationalist question.^ieng

Integrating reproductive health: myth and ideology.

Since 1994, integrating human immunodeficiency virus/sexually transmitted disease (HIV/STD) services with primary health care, as part of reproductive health, has been advocated to address two major public health problems: to control the spread of HIV; and to improve women's reproductive health. However, integration is unlikely to succeed because primary health care and the political context within which this approach is taking place are unsuited to the task. In this paper, a historical comparison is made between the health systems of Ghana, Kenya and Zambia and that of South Africa, to examine progress on integration of HIV/STD services since 1994. Our findings indicate that primary health care in Ghana, Kenya and Zambia has been used mainly by women and children and that integration has meant adding new activities to these services. For the vertical programmes which support these services, integration implies enhanced collaboration rather than merged responsibility. This compromise between comprehensive rhetoric and selective reality has resulted in little change to existing structures and processes; problems with integration have been exacerbated by the activities of external donors. By comparison, in South Africa integration has been achieved through political commitment to primary health care rather than expanding vertical programmes (top-down management systems). The rhetoric of integration has been widely used in reproductive health despite lack of evidence for its feasibility, as a result of the convergence of four agendas: improving family planning quality; the need to improve women's health; the rapid spread of HIV; and conceptual shifts in primary health care. International reproductive health actors, however, have taken little account of political, financial and managerial constraints to implementation in low-income countries.

PIP: This paper provides a historical comparison between the health systems in Ghana, Kenya and Zambia and South Africa, to examine progress on integration of HIV/STD services since 1994. Findings gathered from the study conducted during 1997-98 revealed that the primary health care in Ghana, Kenya and Zambia has been used mainly by women and children and that integration has meant adding new activities to these services. For the vertical program which support these services, integration implies enhanced collaboration rather than merged responsibility. This compromise between comprehensive rhetoric and selective reality has resulted in little change to existing structures and processes; problems with integration have been exacerbated by the activities of external donors. By comparison, in South Africa integration has been achieved through political commitment to primary health care rather than expanding vertical programs (top-down management systems).

Pioneering community-oriented primary care.

PIP: This is a retrospective report on the importance of Kark and Cassel's 1952 paper on community-oriented primary care (COPC). In 1978, WHO and UNICEF endorsed COPC. However, the ideas girding and framing this approach had first been given full expression in practice some four decades earlier. In Depression-Era South Africa, Sidney Kark, a leader of the National Department of Health, converted the emergent discipline of social medicine into a unique form of comprehensive practice and established the Pholela Health Center, which was the explicit model for COPC. COPC as founded and practiced by Kark was a community, family and personal practice; it also was a multidisciplinary and team practice. Furthermore, the innovations of COPC entailed monitoring, evaluation, and research. Evaluation is the essence of Kark and Kassel's paper, which offers a convincing demonstration of the effects of COPC. Its key findings include the following: 1) that there was a decline in the incidence of syphilis in the area served by the health center; 2) that diet and nutrition improved; and 3) that the crude mortality rate as well as the infant mortality rate--the standard marker--declined in Pholela. In the succeeding decades, OPC had an international legacy (through WHO and H. Jack Geiger's influence in the US Office of Economic Opportunity), which came full circle in the 1980s, when a young generation of South Africans began to search their history for models for their health care programs at the dawn of the post-Apartheid Era.^ieng

Contraception in the prepill era.

Although medical history has documented the desire to control fertility since ancient times, safe and effective contraception did not exist until this century and has not been equally available to all people. Strong moral sentiments, economic and social class factors, religious beliefs, familial and gender relations, and political as well as legal constraints have often limited the ability of physicians in favor of contraception to provide advice and methods of birth control to their patients. By the early 1900s, a constellation of factors--in particular, the large influx of poor immigrants, and feminist groups advocating women's rights--helped to move forward a birth-control movement in this country and abroad. In the early 20th century, Margaret Sanger became one of the most avid proponents of contraception in the United States. By 1950, she and Katharine McCormick had contracted with biologist Gregory Pincus to develop an effective birth control pill. A collaborative effort by Pincus and other researchers led to trials of the pill in Puerto Rico, Haiti, and Mexico between 1956 and 1957, which provided the basis for an application to the Food and Drug Administration for approval of the first oral contraceptive.

PIP: Historical texts describe a wide array of oral and barrier methods used to prevent pregnancy. The transition to a more modern era in contraceptive devices was marked by the invention in 1709 of the condom, followed in the early 1800s by the contraceptive sponge and a contraceptive syringe. Although early condoms, diaphragms, cervical caps, and IUDs represented advances in terms of contraceptive efficacy, various substances inserted into the vagina were toxic and mechanical devices had the potential for both injury and discomfort. Throughout the long history of attempts to control fertility, social factors have been as important as research initiatives. Religious and moral beliefs have intersected with economic and social class factors in the promotion and prohibition of contraception. It was illegal to provide information on contraception in the US well into the 20th century, but physicians had the authority to prescribe methods for health reasons. The large influx of poor immigrants and advocacy by women's rights groups provided the impetus for the birth control movement of the early 1900s. The subsequent development of the oral contraceptive pill gave women, for the first time, the ability to control their fertility.

Human echinococcosis in Bulgaria: a comparative epidemiological analysis.

The present article describes the importance of human echinococcosis as a public health problem in Bulgaria, outlines the control measures carried out and evaluates comparatively the situation over three periods spanning 46 years (1950-1995). During the first period (1950-62), a total of 6469 new surgically confirmed cases of hydatid disease were recorded in Bulgaria, with an annual incidence of 6.5 per 100,000 population, and the infestation rate in domestic animals and dogs was high. Echinococcosis was endemic throughout the country. The organization of a control campaign, initiated in 1960, led to a considerable improvement in the situation during the second period (1971-82). Morbidity among humans gradually decreased, with an average incidence of 2.0 per 100,000, and the proportion of infected animals also fell. The distribution of echinococcosis was characterized as sporadic or of low endemicity. During the third period (1983-95), owing to administrative irregularities and economic changes, funds for supporting the campaign were reduced and control structures were dismantled. As a result, the incidence rose to 3.3 per 100,000. Echinococcosis again became endemic, in some regions hyperendemic. The findings provide convincing evidence that cessation of control measures or reduction of campaign activity can lead to intensification in the transmission of Echinococcus granulosus and to a resurgence in echinococcosis to previous levels.

PIP: Prevalent throughout the country, human cystic echinococcosis is a major health and economic problem in Bulgaria. The importance of this disease as a public health problem in Bulgaria is described, followed by a description of control measures conducted and a review of the situation over 3 periods spanning 1950-95. During 1950-62, 6469 new surgically confirmed cases of hydatid disease were recorded in the country, for an annual incidence of 6.5 cases per 100,000 population, and the infestation rate in domestic animals and dogs was high. While echinococcosis was endemic throughout the country during this period, the organization of a control campaign, initiated in 1960, led to a considerable improvement in the situation during 1971-82. Morbidity among humans gradually decreased, with an average incidence of 2.0/100,000, and the proportion of infected animals also fell. The distribution of echinococcosis at that time was characterized as sporadic or of low endemicity. However, during 1983-95, the reduction of program funds and the subsequent dismantling of control structures prompted the incidence of echinococcosis to rise to 3.3/100,000. The disease therefore again became endemic, and even hyperendemic in some regions.

The pill in Japan: will approval ever come?

PIP: The Japanese Ministry of Health and Welfare voted in March 1998 to indefinitely delay the licensing of oral contraceptives in Japan. Over years of attempts to gain approval of the pill for contraception, health officials have cited a range of reasons for their position against the pill, including concern over side effects, fears about the potential spread of sexually transmitted diseases if pill use replaces condom use, and worries about the environmental effects of hormonal contraceptive use. Japan is unique in banning all hormonal methods of contraception. The author describes the history of hormonal agents in Japan, from their initial approval in the country for noncontraceptive therapeutic uses in the late 1950s through the defeat in March 1998. Given the higher failure rates associated with condom use and fertility awareness, it is no wonder that abortion is rather common in Japan. Making hormonal methods of contraception available would help to prevent unwanted pregnancies. The uphill battle to legalize the low-dose pill in Japan continues.^ieng

Mortality peaks in Italy in the late 19th and early 20th centuries: trends by age and sex.

PIP: This study aims to provide a closer look at mortality peaks following the earthquake in Calabria/Sicily in 1908 and in Marsica in 1915, as well as World War I and the 1918 Spanish flu epidemic. Infant and youth mortality in Italy began to slow down and in some cases grounded to a halt during the first two decades of the century. The Messina and Marsica earthquakes as well as World War I and the Spanish flu epidemic caused unexpected peaks in the mortality rate in the early part of the century. The impact of these events on the mortality rate are analyzed by sex, age, and cause of death. Neither of the earthquakes made any distinction by age and deaths were proportionately divided among the population affected. Mortality in the 5-9 and 10-14 year age ranges had been low, and the deaths provoked by earthquake brought about a steep rise, while in the 0-4 year age range mortality had been high previously. Neither earthquake made any distinction by sex; therefore, the difference in degree of mortality between males and females weakened at every age group. On the other hand, World War I triggered a rise in mortality that was differentiated among age groups. Childhood mortality rose during this time because children suffered from various deprivations, including food shortages, poor hygiene and living conditions, and lack of care. The war definitely altered the difference in degree of mortality between the sexes in that there was a disproportionate rise in mortality among males in the first year. The fourth crisis considered is the Spanish flu epidemic, which caused a rise in mortality that was undifferentiated by age but highly differentiated by sex in that females were more strongly affected by it.^ieng

Childbearing trends in Sweden 1961-1997.

PIP: This article presents updated annual indices of birth rates and trends in childbearing for the years 1961-97 in Sweden. Data were obtained from the Swedish population register system, which permits the collection of statistical information on the entire Swedish population with a very high accuracy rate. The fall of total fertility rates (TFR) since the mid-60s and their subsequent rise during 1980s correspond to a postponement in the age entry for motherhood during the same period. In 1980, the increase in the TFR was connected with a sudden change in the birth-spacing behavior of Swedish parents, which was induced by minor public policy reform. Simultaneous changes in childbearing intensities were significant among all demographic groups of women. In addition, increase in age at first birth and abruptly shorter birth intervals are essential components of the fertility trends. The article concludes by recommending a simple annual update of birth rates in Sweden, as this would provide a clear picture of the primary features of current fertility trends.^ieng

[Has the urban transition ended in sub-Saharan Africa?]. / La transition urbaine est-elle achevee en Afrique sub-Saharienne?

PIP: In 1950, 28% of the world¿s population lived in cities. At that point, localities larger than 10,000 inhabitants were home to 0.7 billion people, of whom 36% were in developing countries. However, according to UN projections, the rate of urbanization will reach 47.4% in 2000, with cities housing 2.9 billion people, of whom 68.7% will be in developing countries. Africa, like other continents, is urbanizing. Although Africa is among the world¿s least urbanized regions, it is nonetheless the continent with the highest rate of urbanization. Urban population growth reached its height during the 1950s, then the urban population in the region multiplied by a factor of 10 during 1950-90, far outpacing the rate of overall population growth on the continent. However, during the 1980s and 1990s, urban growth in Africa declined sharply. The author discusses urbanization in Africa devoid of industrialization, declining rates of urban population growth in the region, the uncertain future of urbanization in Africa, and how future urbanization in Africa depends upon the role the continent will play in the global economy.^ieng

The long-term pattern of adult mortality and the highest attained age.

"Recent new data on old age mortality point to a particular model for the way in which the probability of dying increases with age. The model is found to fit not only modern data but also some widely spaced historical data for the 19th and 17th centuries, and even some estimates for the early mediaeval period. The results show a pattern which calls for explanation. The model can also be used to predict a probability distribution for the highest age which will be attained in given circumstances. The results are relevant to the current debate about whether there is a fixed upper limit to the length of human life." A discussion of the paper by several researchers and a reply by the author are included.

The proper age to marry: social norms and behavior in nineteenth-century Netherlands.

"The article compares publicly discussed norms concerning the proper age at marriage for men and women in nineteenth-century Netherlands, and the actual trends present in the empirical evidence about marriage age. Medical professionals (the hygienists) expressed the belief that marriage at too young an age was damaging both to public hygiene and the family's health; other commentators stressed the connection between young marriages and poverty. Yet such norms were put forward vaguely, allowing other influences on marriage age to come into play. Consequently, data on marital behavior suggest considerable diversity in the population, with age at marriage varying strongly by class, sex, and region. Generally, age at marriage did not begin to fall until the period 1860-1870, and even after that decade class differences remained strong."

Worlds we have lost and worlds we may regain: two centuries of changes in the life course in Sweden.

"The article seeks to place into historical context the familial changes in ¿post-industrial' Sweden during the past two decades, by comparing them with general characterizations (based on documented life-course experiences) of the traditional Swedish agrarian society (before 1800), the transitional society (c. 1800-1870), and the industrial society (c. 1870-1980). Familial lives in traditional Swedish society tended to be stable. By contrast, during the agrarian-to-industrial society, especially since World War II, stability became once again the hallmark because of general government social policy."

A surprising exception. Himachal's success in promoting female education.

PIP: Gender inequalities in India are derived partly from the economic dependence of women on men. Low levels of formal education among women reinforce the asymmetry of power between the sexes. A general pattern of sharp gender bias in education levels is noted in most Indian states; however, in the small state of Himachal Pradesh, school participation rates are almost as high for girls as for boys. Rates of school participation for girls at the primary level is close to universal in this state, and while gender bias persists at higher levels of education, it is much lower than elsewhere in India and rapidly declining. This was not the case 50 years ago; educational levels in Himachal Pradesh were no higher than in Bihar or Uttar Pradesh. Today, the spectacular transition towards universal elementary education in Himachal Pradesh has contributed to the impressive reduction of poverty, mortality, illness, undernutrition, and related deprivations.^ieng

[Burkina Faso: review of population policies and programs]. / Burkina Faso: retrospective des politiques et programmes de population.

PIP: When Burkina Faso gained its independence, no one thought to act upon the various demographic variables with the aim of achieving certain specific, planned goals. It was necessary to wait until 1986 for the adoption of a planning policy and the abrogation of part of 1920 legislation on contraceptive distribution before the first signs of attitudinal change could be observed with regard to population concerns. Formerly confused with birth limiting policy, family planning is increasingly becoming an essential component of maternal and infant health. The author describes the evolution of population policies in Burkina Faso from independence, after the 1974 Bucharest conference on population, and up until now. Today, general population policy goals in Burkina Faso are in favor of whatever will improve quality of life and well-being across all social strata. This goal will only be attained through the establishment of better balance between population and available resources. It involves meeting the population¿s essential food, nutrition, health, education, and employment needs; raising the value of available human resources; lowering morbidity and mortality; improving women¿s status; improving the population¿s spatial distribution; managing the environment better; and accounting for demographic variables when establishing development goals. Burkina Faso therefore plans to pursue a comprehensive approach toward its population problems.^ieng

[Mexican migration policies after IRCA]. / La politica migratoria mexicana despues de IRCA.

PIP: The evolution since 1964 of Mexican government policy regarding migrant workers in the US is discussed. For a decade after the "bracero" program was terminated by the US, the Mexican government attempted to encourage creation of another legal framework for migration, regarded as inevitable whether legal or clandestine. Around 1974-75, a more distant attitude, termed the "policy of no policy," acquired considerable support in Mexican government and academic circles. The no-policy strategy allowed Mexico to achieve certain objectives regarding migration without prompting US intervention in its internal affairs, as for example by a linkage of US migration policy to specific Mexican government actions. The 1986 passage of the US Immigration Reform and Control Act effectively ended the no-policy strategy that had allowed the Mexican government to count on the continued emigration of Mexican workers without compromising its position of promoting respect for migrant rights. The unilateral change in the status quo by the US led to substitution of the "policy of dialogue," a clear signal of the Mexican government's search for a new migration agreement. The policy of dialogue has entailed greater discussion of the two traditional Mexican objectives regarding migration. Some progress has apparently been made concerning migrant rights, but the second and less explicit objective, that of preventing abrupt changes in US immigration policy and in migratory flows, is harder to judge. The atmosphere of freer public debate in Mexico is politicizing migratory policy.^ieng