Undergraduates' workplace learning in health sciences education: psychometric properties of single-item measures.

BACKGROUND: Undergraduates' workplace learning is an important part of health sciences education. Educational psychology research considers many different aspects of self-regulated learning at the workplace, including cognition, motivation, emotions, and context. Multivariate longitudinal and diary studies in this field require fewer items than alternatives or even a single item per construct and can reveal the sub-processes of workplace learning and contribute to a better understanding of students' learning. Short instruments are necessary for application in workplace settings, especially stressful ones, to mitigate survey fatigue. The present study aimed to assess the psychometric properties of single items measuring various aspects of workplace learning. METHODS: Twenty-nine single items selected from the Workplace Learning Inventory in Health Sciences Education were analyzed for reliability, information reproduction, and relationships within the nomological network. The authors additionally analyzed four generally formulated single items' relationships with the full Workplace Learning Inventory scales and external criteria within the nomological network. Participants were 214 ninth- or tenth-semester veterinary medicine students in Austria and Germany who were learning at varied workplaces during the winter semester of 2021/2022. RESULTS: Of the 29 single items selected from existing scales, 27 showed sufficient reliability, but mixed results were obtained regarding validity. Although the items' relationships within the nomological network were similar to those of the full scales, information reproduction was insufficient for most items. The four general single items showed acceptable validity, but the reliability of these measures of states could not be assessed. CONCLUSIONS: This paper reported findings on the psychometric properties of single items for undergraduates' workplace learning in health science education. The findings are crucial for deciding whether to use scales versus single-item measures in future studies. By applying the findings, researchers can be more economical in their workplace learning data collection and can include more constructs.

Analyzing EFL learners' demotivating factors in blended learning context.

In second language and foreign language learning, demotivation in learning is a common occurrence. Almost all previous studies on learners' demotivation focused on traditional classroom learning environment rather than blended learning setting. This paper investigates learner perceptions of demotivating factors for Chinese EFL college students in blended learning context. 272 college sophomores with varied majors from a university in Mid-East China took part in a questionnaire survey. The questionnaire, consisted of 34 4-point Likert type items about learners' demotivation in a blended EFL learning environment, was adapted from Kikuchi's demotivation questionnaire and Xie's LPDS (Learner Perceptions of Demotivator Scale). An exploratory factor analysis was performed to explore the factor structure of the questionnaire items. Then mean scores of items loading on each factor were calculated and independent samples t-test analysis was adopted to examine the differences of demotivating factors between different groups of participants. Five demotivating factors from the questionnaire were extracted. The findings reveal a newly discovered factor: learners' lack of self-discipline in online learning. The paper indicates that there is no significant difference of these five demotivating factors between male and female learners, and between rural and urban learners. Whereas less motivated learners perceive four among the five factors to be more demotivating than more motivated learners.

Resolving conflict between aversive and appetitive learning of views: how ants shift to a new route during navigation.

Ants store and recall views associated with foraging success, facilitating future foraging journeys. Negative views are also learned, but instead prompt avoidance behaviors such as turning away. However, little is known about the aversive view's role in navigation, the effect of cue conflict, or the contextual relationship between learning and recalling. In this study, we tested Myrmecia midas' capacity for aversive learning of views either independently of or in conflict with appetitive events. We either captured and released foragers when reaching a location or let them pass unhindered. After a few journeys, captured foragers exhibited aversive learning by circumventing the capture location and increasing both meandering and scanning. Ants that experienced foraging-appetitive and homing-aversive events on their journeys exhibited lower rates of avoidance behavior and scans than those experiencing aversive events in both outbound and homebound journeys. The foraging-aversive and homing-aversive ants exhibited similar levels of avoidance and scanning as those that experienced the foraging-aversive and homing-appetitive. We found that foragers showed evidence of context specificity in their scanning behavior, but not in other measures of aversive learning. The foragers did not increase their meandering and scans while approaching the views associated with aversive events. In addition to shedding light on the role of aversive views in navigation, our finding has important implications for understanding the learning mechanisms triggered by handling animals.

Dyads or quads? Impact of group size and learning context on collaborative learning.

Collaborative learning has been widely used in both offline and online contexts to support deep learning, and its effectiveness may be adjusted by the size of the collaborative groups. To examine the effect of learning context and group size on collaborative learning, this study conducted two experiments with 62 third-year undergraduate students enrolled in the course named Application of Modern Educational Technology to compare learning outcomes, learning engagement, and collaborative experience between quad (four-person) and dyad groups in both face-to-face and online learning contexts. The results indicated that learning outcomes and collaborative experience were not significantly affected by group size and learning context, but for peer interaction, the dyad group showed more communication and interaction during the learning process. In general, the dyad group showed higher and more stable scores in all aspects, as well as being able to adapt to changes in learning contexts. Based on the research results, three practical implications were proposed to promote the implementation of collaborative learning in teaching.

Interrelationship Amongst University Student Perceived Learning Burnout, Academic Self-Efficacy, and Teacher Emotional Support in China's English Online Learning Context.

This study seeks to explore the impact of learning burnout on university students' English learning effect in the online environment. Through a large sample questionnaire survey, the study uses structural equation modelling to measure the interactions amongst university students' English online learning burnout (EOLB), academic self-efficacy (AEE), and teacher emotional support (TES), thereby analysing and summarising the characteristics of their impacts on students' online learning satisfaction. The results from the data analysis show that AEE plays a mediating role between students' EOLB and learning satisfaction, and TES plays a moderating role between students' EOLB and AEE, which all eventually influence students' online learning effect manifested in aspects such as behaviour, cognition, and emotion. Given the results, the study further provides suggestions for alleviating university students' EOLB, which can be used to optimise English online teaching design and learning practice.

Mobile Sensing with Smart Wearables of the Physical Context of Distance Learning Students to Consider Its Effects on Learning.

Research shows that various contextual factors can have an impact on learning. Some of these factors can originate from the physical learning environment (PLE) in this regard. When learning from home, learners have to organize their PLE by themselves. This paper is concerned with identifying, measuring, and collecting factors from the PLE that may affect learning using mobile sensing. More specifically, this paper first investigates which factors from the PLE can affect distance learning. The results identify nine types of factors from the PLE associated with cognitive, physiological, and affective effects on learning. Subsequently, this paper examines which instruments can be used to measure the investigated factors. The results highlight several methods involving smart wearables (SWs) to measure these factors from PLEs successfully. Third, this paper explores how software infrastructure can be designed to measure, collect, and process the identified multimodal data from and about the PLE by utilizing mobile sensing. The design and implementation of the Edutex software infrastructure described in this paper will enable learning analytics stakeholders to use data from and about the learners' physical contexts. Edutex achieves this by utilizing sensor data from smartphones and smartwatches, in addition to response data from experience samples and questionnaires from learners' smartwatches. Finally, this paper evaluates to what extent the developed infrastructure can provide relevant information about the learning context in a field study with 10 participants. The evaluation demonstrates how the software infrastructure can contextualize multimodal sensor data, such as lighting, ambient noise, and location, with user responses in a reliable, efficient, and protected manner.

Propuesta didáctica de una innovación educativa con las nuevas tecnologías en las Ciencias Básicas Biomédicas / Didactic proposal on educative innovation with the new technologies in Basic Biomedical Sciences

RESUMEN Fundamento: Los cambios tecnológicos impulsan nuevas opciones para la educación universitaria, lo cual posibilita la creación de entornos virtuales de aprendizaje, centrados en el estudiante, con la participación del docente como un facilitador del proceso. Objetivo: Diseñar una propuesta didáctica de innovación educativa con las tecnologías de la informática y las comunicaciones, para la simulación de una práctica de laboratorio de la asignatura Metabolismo-Nutrición, correspondiente a la disciplina Bases Biológicas de la Medicina. Metodología: Se realizó una investigación descriptiva-cualitativa, en los meses de mayo a junio del 2020. Se utilizaron los métodos: histórico-lógico, analítico-sintético e inductivo-deductivo. Se empleó: la revisión de documentos, la observación y la tormenta de ideas. Se tomó como población los docentes del Departamento de Ciencias Básicas Biomédicas, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas "Salvador Allende" de la Universidad de Ciencias Médicas de La Habana. Resultados: La innovación educativa se propuso para la simulación de una prueba de tolerancia oral a la glucosa, y consideró las necesidades formativas de los estudiantes y las competencias a desarrollar. Conclusiones: Se diseñó una propuesta didáctica de innovación educativa que emplea las potencialidades de la plataforma Moodle para la gestión de espacios de aprendizaje en línea. Las nuevas tecnologías constituyen una alternativa para la continuidad del proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje en la presente situación de pandemia.

ABSTRACT Background: Technological changes boost new possibilities for university education, it makes possible the creation of e-learning contexts, centered on the student, with the participation of the teacher as the process's facilitator. Objective: To design a didactic proposal of educative innovation with information and communication technologies, for the simulation of a laboratory practice of the Nutrition- Metabolism subject, corresponding to the Biological Basis of Medicine discipline. Methodology: A qualitative-descriptive research was conducted from May to June 2020. The historical-logical, analytical-synthetic and inductive-deductive methods were used. Also document review, observation and brainstorm. The population was the teachers from the Basic Biomedical Sciences Department, at the Havana University of Medical Sciences, "Salvador Allende" Faculty Results: Educative innovation was proposed for the simulation of an oral glucose tolerance test, and considered the students' formative needs also the competences to be developed. Conclusions: A didactic proposal of educative innovation was designed using the potentialities of the Moodle platform for the management in the e-learning contexts. New technologies constitute an alternative for the continuity of the teaching-learning process at the present pandemic situation.

A Motivational Mechanism Framework for Teachers' Online Informal Learning and Innovation During the COVID-19 Pandemic.

Online informal learning (IL) spreads quickly in the COVID-19 Pandemic. Studies have predicted that both online and workplace IL have potential value to individual and organization development, whereas the study on its link with innovation remains scarce. IL is an individualized learning pattern different from formal learning, and its functioning mechanism on innovation will deepen our understanding of the relationship between learning and innovation. Self-efficacy and autonomous motivation are considered as two streams of motivational mediating mechanisms to innovation. However, previous studies have proceeded largely in separation from each other. Researchers highlight the need to develop a more fine-grained theory of motivation and innovation. In addressing these literature gaps, this paper takes college teachers as the sample and focuses on the motivational mediating mechanism between online IL and innovation. The results showed that teachers IL could positively predict innovative teaching performance. Personal teaching efficacy and autonomous motivation played as sequential mediators on the link between IL and innovative teaching performance. This study extends the literature of IL-innovation relationship and enriches understanding of cognition-oriented motivation theory, highlighting one's internal autonomous construction is the key to innovation. Theoretical and practical implications for psychological empowerment are discussed.

Continuities across continents: Assessing African American cultural themes among Black and Coloured South Africans.

Much of the scholarship concerning African American culture is premised on the notion that it is a legacy of African origins but there has been essentially no attempt to document that relationship empirically. This paper briefly reviews existing evidence for cultural continuity in the Diaspora and then compares the responses of Black and Coloured South African and African Americans on measures of culture emic to African American populations. The observed patterns of psychometric performance, participants' responses, and the predictive utility of the measures employed were consistent with the thesis that despite inevitable variation, these three groups of the African Diaspora share similar orientations on the cultural themes assessed. This research hopes to initiate empirical work on the continuity thesis as it applies to connecting African American culture with a legacy of Africa and as related more broadly to the study of global Diasporas.

The Relations and Role of Social Competencies and Belonging with Math and Science Interest and Efficacy for Adolescents in Informal STEM Programs.

Adolescence represents a developmental period of waning academic motivation, particularly in STEM domains. To combat this, better understanding the factors that might foster STEM motivation and interest is of importance. Social factors like social competencies and feelings of belonging become increasingly important in adolescence. The current study investigated structural relations between social competencies, feelings of belonging to an informal STEM learning program, math and science efficacy and interest in a sample of 268 adolescents (Mage = 15.25; 66.8% girls; 42.5% White British or European American, 25.7% South Asian British or Asian American, 15.7% Afro-Caribbean Black British or African American 5.6% Bi-racial, and 3.0% other). Adolescents were recruited from six different informal learning sites (e.g., science museums, zoos, or aquariums) in the United States (n = 147) and the United Kingdom (n = 121). The results revealed positive relations between social competencies and belonging, and between belonging and math and science efficacy and interest. Further, the results also indicated a positive indirect effect of social competencies on efficacy and interest, via belonging. These findings have implications for guiding informal STEM programming in ways that can enhance STEM motivation and interest.

Does the learning environment 'make the grade'? A systematic review of accommodations for children on the autism spectrum in mainstream school.

BACKGROUND: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development adapted by the United Nations envisions inclusive and equitable quality education. While there is a growing body of research on interventions designed to help children on the autism spectrum adapt to the school environment, accommodations to children needs have been given less attention. OBJECTIVE: To synthesize the literature on accommodations in the learning environment for children on the autism spectrum (ages 5-19 years) in mainstream school, with a specific focus on the effects on functioning, educational outcomes and well-being. METHODS: A systematic search was conducted. The study selection and data extraction were performed by two independent reviewers. Eligible studies were assessed according to the What Works Clearinghouse (WWC) standards. RESULTS: The search yielded 6102 citations. Only 37 eligible studies were identified, of which 14 met the WWC standards. This inconclusive and heterogeneous body of research tentatively suggest that accommodations in the pedagogical and psychosocial leaning environment can improve performance and function in school. CONCLUSION AND SIGNIFICANCE: Accommodations in the learning environment is a promising but understudied approach. Creative research and innovation will be needed to support policy makers and school personnel in their quest to ensure inclusive and equitable education.

Projecting learner engagement in remote contexts using empathic design.

This paper is in response to the manuscript entitled "Empathic design: Imagining the cognitive and emotional learner experience" (Tracey and Hutchinson in Educ Technol Res Dev 67(5):1259-1272, 2019) from a research perspective. The original manuscript provides a theoretical and empirical foundation of an instructional design approach-empathic design-where designers, during the design process, predict how learners would feel while engaging in the final design solution. Empathic design has significant implications in the "shift to digital" during the pandemic. That is, when designing the remote learning experience, instructional designers need to project into the remote contexts and predict learners' engagement experiences in these contexts. To address the "shift to digital" remote learning, empathic design needs to be extended with two important considerations, including learners' engagement and the context in which engagement occurs. This paper discusses how empathic design can be applied to consider four types of engagement (i.e., behavioral, cognitive, affective, and social engagement) and three contextual features (e.g., physical environment, technological, and social features) in order to best support learner experiences in the "shift to digital" remote learning during the pandemic.

EEG Correlates of Learning From Speech Presented in Environmental Noise.

How the human brain retains relevant vocal information while suppressing irrelevant sounds is one of the ongoing challenges in cognitive neuroscience. Knowledge of the underlying mechanisms of this ability can be used to identify whether a person is distracted during listening to a target speech, especially in a learning context. This paper investigates the neural correlates of learning from the speech presented in a noisy environment using an ecologically valid learning context and electroencephalography (EEG). To this end, the following listening tasks were performed while 64-channel EEG signals were recorded: (1) attentive listening to the lectures in background sound, (2) attentive listening to the background sound presented alone, and (3) inattentive listening to the background sound. For the first task, 13 lectures of 5 min in length embedded in different types of realistic background noise were presented to participants who were asked to focus on the lectures. As background noise, multi-talker babble, continuous highway, and fluctuating traffic sounds were used. After the second task, a written exam was taken to quantify the amount of information that participants have acquired and retained from the lectures. In addition to various power spectrum-based EEG features in different frequency bands, the peak frequency and long-range temporal correlations (LRTC) of alpha-band activity were estimated. To reduce these dimensions, a principal component analysis (PCA) was applied to the different listening conditions resulting in the feature combinations that discriminate most between listening conditions and persons. Linear mixed-effect modeling was used to explain the origin of extracted principal components, showing their dependence on listening condition and type of background sound. Following this unsupervised step, a supervised analysis was performed to explain the link between the exam results and the EEG principal component scores using both linear fixed and mixed-effect modeling. Results suggest that the ability to learn from the speech presented in environmental noise can be predicted by the several components over the specific brain regions better than by knowing the background noise type. These components were linked to deterioration in attention, speech envelope following, decreased focusing during listening, cognitive prediction error, and specific inhibition mechanisms.

Development and Implementation of a Self-Optimizable Smart Lighting System Based on Learning Context in Classroom.

Illumination is one of the most important environmental factors in the classroom. Researchers have discovered that lighting settings have significant impact on students' performance. Although light-emitting diode (LED) lighting systems can precisely control brightness level and correlated color temperature (CCT), existing designs of LED lighting control systems for classrooms are focused on energy-saving but lack context-based illumination control ability. In this study, a smart lighting system with continuous evolution capability was developed. It can adjust brightness, CCT, and illuminance distribution dynamically according to specific learning context. This system allows not only manual control, but also automatic switching of scenes by integrating with school schedules. Based on existing knowledge about lighting preference, 10 lighting modes confined in the comfortable zone of Kruithof curve were proposed for various classroom scenarios. Moreover, a classroom environmental data-processing framework for collecting and analyzing learning context, illumination settings, environmental data, and students' performance data was introduced. This framework can help researchers explore the correlation between student performance and environmental parameters.

Structural brain changes as a function of second language vocabulary training: Effects of learning context.

Recent research indicates that learning a second language (L2) results in both functional and structural brain changes. However, few studies have examined whether structural brain changes vary as a function of the context in which L2 learning takes place. The current study examines changes in cortical thickness (CT) and gray matter volume (GMV) in response to short-term L2 vocabulary learning. In particular, we compared structural changes for learning with paired picture-word (PW) association versus learning within virtual environments (VE) and non-trained controls. Both L2 training groups learned the same 90 Mandarin Chinese nouns across 7 training sessions over approximately 20 days. Our results show (a) CT and GMV increased in regions implicated in a language control network for both L2 training groups, and (b) participants in different learning contexts may rely on different structures within this language control network. In particular, CT in the right IFG was associated with L2 training performance for the PW group, whereas CT in the right IPL showed a positive correlation with L2 training performance for the VE group. Our findings indicate that short-term L2 training leads to changes in brain structure, which vary based on L2 learning contexts and individual differences in cognitive ability.

Learning context and the other-race effect: Strategies for improving face recognition.

People recognize faces of their own race more accurately than faces of other races-a phenomenon known as the "Other-Race Effect" (ORE). Previous studies show that training with multiple variable images improves face recognition. Building on multi-image training, we take a novel approach to improving own- and other-race face recognition by testing the role of learning context on accuracy. Learning context was either contiguous, with multiple images of each identity seen in sequence, or distributed, with multiple images of an identity randomly interspersed among different identities. In two experiments, East Asian and Caucasian participants learned own- and other-races faces either in a contiguous or distributed order. In Experiment 1, people learned each identity from four highly variable face images. In Experiment 2, identities were learned from one image, repeated four times. In both experiments we found a robust other-race effect. The effect of learning context, however, differed depending on the variability of the learned images. The distributed presentation yielded better recognition when people learned from single repeated images (Exp. 1), but not when they learned from multiple variable images (Exp. 2). Overall, performance was better with multiple-image training than repeated single image training. We conclude that multiple-image training and distributed learning can both improve recognition accuracy, but via distinct processes. The former broadens perceptual tolerance for image variation from a face, when there are diverse images available to learn. The latter effectively strengthens the representation of differences among similar faces, when there is only a single learning image.

Interprofessional practice in health care: an educational project with four learning sequences for students from six study programs.

INTRODUCTION: In response to demographic changes and the growing complexity of healthcare demands, national and international organizations are requiring greater cooperation among the health professions. Implementation of interprofessional learning programs within study programs in medicine, midwifery, nursing, and therapy is still rare. The first projects are currently underway in Germany. This paper presents the experience gathered by the organizers as interprofessional courses for six study programs were implemented. PROJECT DESCRIPTION: As part of the collaborative project "Interprofessional Practice in Health Care" between the Medical School at the Ruhr University in Bochum and the Department for Applied Health Sciences at the Hochschule für Gesundheit, interprofessional curricular units were developed, taught and evaluated with the aim of establishing permanent and joint curricular structures at the two German universities. Imparting communication skills, knowledge of and appreciation for the work performed by the other health professions, as well as having students reflect on their own professional roles and responsibilities, were the focus of four curricular units. Students worked together in small interprofessional groups. RESULTS: A total of 220 students enrolled in occupational therapy, midwifery, speech therapy, medicine, nursing, and physiotherapy participated in small-group seminars. When conducting and implementing the seminars, administrative and methodological challenges became apparent, and this should be taken into consideration in regard to any future development of interprofessional courses. Integration into existing curricula, along with finding time in the various schedules and appropriate classroom space for small groups, were among the challenges faced. For over 86% of the students it was important that students from all six of the degree programs involved participated in the project. A detailed analysis of the content and evaluation will follow. CONCLUSION: The value of the project's aim to include as many study programs in the health professions and medicine as possible was confirmed by the participating students. However, accomplishing this requires a substantial amount of organizational effort in terms of scheduling, finding classroom space and integration into existing curricula. Careful attention must be given specifically to the coordination of monoprofessional and interprofessional teaching units.

Desarrollo de la hipótesis como herramienta del pensamiento científico en contextos de aprendizaje en niños y niñas entre cuatro y ocho años de edad / Development of the hypothesis as a tool of the scientific thinking in a learningcontext of boys and girls between four and eight years old

El objeto de la presente investigación se centró en analizar el desarrollo de la hipótesis como herramienta del pensamiento científico, en contextos de aprendizaje, en niños y niñas entre cuatro y ocho años de edad, de los niveles educativos de prejardín, jardín, transición, primero y segundo año de primaria. La muestra fue de 44 niños y niñas. Se utilizó un diseño cuasi experimental: preprueba, postprueba con grupo de control. En la preprueba se estableció el estado inicial de los sujetos respecto del nivel de desarrollo de sus hipótesis. Se realizó un análisis cualitativo sobre la producción, formulación, razonamientos, desempeños y argumentaciones que hacen los niños frente a la elaboración de sus hipótesis. Para comparar los cambios en el desarrollo de la hipótesis entre la preprueba y la postprueba, se obtuvo una significancia estadística de p<0.001 con relación al objetivo y la hipótesis de investigación utilizando la prueba de rangos de Wilcoxon. Se puede afirmar que las experiencias pedagógicas, en términos de solución de problemas, favorecen el desarrollo de la hipótesis como herramienta del pensamiento científico

The purpose of this research was to analyze the development of the hypothesis as a tool of scientific thinking, in learning contexts, among children between the ages of 4 and 8, from the educational levels of pre-kindergarten, kindergarten, transition, first and second grade. The sample was 44 children. A quasi-experimental design was used: pre-test, post-test with control group. During the pre-test, the initial state of the subjects was established regarding the level of development of their hypothesis. A qualitative analysis was performed on the production, formulation, reasoning, performances and arguments that make children when developing their hypothesis. The Wilcoxon ranges test was used to compare changes in the development of the hypothesis between the pre-test and post-test, obtaining a statistical significance of p<0.001 regarding the objective and the research hypothesis. It can be stated that the educational experiences in terms of problem solving, favor the development of the hypothesis as a tool of scientific thinking

Rate of multilingual phonological acquisition: Evidence from a cross-sectional study of English-Mandarin-Malay.

Early child multilingual acquisition is under-explored. Using a cross-sectional study approach, the present research investigates the rate of multilingual phonological acquisition of English-Mandarin-Malay by 64 ethnic Chinese children aged 2;06-4;05 in Malaysia--a multiracial-multilingual country of Asia. The aims of the study are to provide clinical norms for speech development in the multilingual children and to compare multilingual acquisition with monolingual and bilingual acquisition. An innovative multilingual phonological test which adopts well-defined scoring criteria drawing upon local accents of English, Mandarin and Malay is proposed and described in this article. This procedure has been neglected in the few existing Chinese bilingual phonological acquisition studies resulting in peculiar findings. The multilingual children show comparable phonological acquisition milestones to that of monolingual and bilingual peers acquiring the same languages. The implications of the present results are discussed. The present findings contribute to the development of models and theories of child multilingual acquisition.

Toddlers' imitative learning in interactive and observational contexts: the role of age and familiarity of the model.

Three experiments examined the effects of age and familiarity of a model on toddlers' imitative learning in observational contexts (Experiments 1, 2, and 3) and interactive contexts (Experiments 2 and 3). Experiment 1 (N=112 18-month-old toddlers) varied the age (child vs. adult) and long-term familiarity (kin vs. stranger) of the person who modeled the novel actions. Experiment 2 (N=48 18-month-olds and 48 24-month-olds) and Experiment 3 (N=48 24-month-olds) varied short-term familiarity with the model (some or none) and learning context (interactive or observational). The most striking findings were that toddlers were able to learn a new action from observing completely unfamiliar strangers who did not address them and were far less likely to imitate an unfamiliar model who directly interacted with them. These studies highlight the robustness of toddlers' observational learning and reveal limitations of learning from unfamiliar models in interactive contexts.