How Reasons Make Law.

According to legal anti-positivism, legal duties are just a subset of our moral duties. Not every moral duty, though, is legal. So what else is needed? This article develops a theory of how moral duties come to be law, which I call the constitutive reasons account. Among our moral reasons are legal reasons-and those reasons make moral duties into legal duties. So the law consists of moral duties which have, as one of their underlying reasons, a legal reason. Such legal reasons arise from a relationship with the body for which it is the law of. The legal reasons in America, then, are the moral reasons flowing from a relationship with the United States. These reasons include consent, democracy, association and fair play. They are law's constitutive reasons. By looking for them, we can better explain why some moral duties form part of the law, while others do not.

Supporting best practice in reflexive thematic analysis reporting in Palliative Medicine: A review of published research and introduction to the Reflexive Thematic Analysis Reporting Guidelines (RTARG).

BACKGROUND: Reflexive thematic analysis is widely used in qualitative research published in Palliative Medicine, and in the broader field of health research. However, this approach is often not used well. Common problems in published reflexive thematic analysis in general include assuming thematic analysis is a singular approach, rather than a family of methods, confusing themes and topics, and treating and reporting reflexive thematic analysis as if it is atheoretical. PURPOSE: We reviewed 20 papers published in Palliative Medicine between 2014 and 2022 that cited Braun and Clarke, identified using the search term 'thematic analysis' and the default 'relevance' setting on the journal webpage. The aim of the review was to identify common problems and instances of good practice. Problems centred around a lack of methodological coherence, and a lack of reflexive openness, clarity and detail in reporting. We considered contributors to these common problems, including the use of reporting checklists that are not coherent with the values of reflexive thematic analysis. To support qualitative researchers in producing coherent and reflexively open reports of reflexive thematic analysis we have developed the Reflexive Thematic Analysis Reporting Guidelines (the RTARG; in Supplemental Materials) informed by this review, other reviews we have done and our values and experience as qualitative researchers. The RTARG is also intended for use by peer reviewers to encourage methodologically coherent reviewing. KEY LEARNING POINTS: Methodological incoherence and a lack of transparency are common problems in reflexive thematic analysis research published in Palliative Medicine. Coherence can be facilitated by researchers and reviewers striving to be knowing - thoughtful, deliberative, reflexive and theoretically aware - practitioners and appraisers of reflexive thematic analysis and developing an understanding of the diversity within the thematic analysis family of methods.

Collecting human remains in nineteenth-century Paris: the case of the Société Anatomique de Paris and the Musée Dupuytren.

This paper describes the scientific practices of the anatomists from the Société Anatomique de Paris (1803-1873) who were collecting anatomical and pathological specimens in Nineteenth-Century Paris and which led to the building of the anatomy and pathology Musée Dupuytren (1835-2016). The framework introduced by Robert Kohler to describe collecting sciences (2007) is useful as a tool to identify the set of diverse practices within pathological anatomy in nineteenth-century Paris. However, I will argue that anatomy and pathology collecting had specific features compared to most collecting sciences. Two main collecting practices could be distinguished: first, "finding" anatomical specimens and second, keeping these specimens. The first kind of practices were at least rhetorically and explicitly motivated by Auguste Comte's positive philosophy. But "finding" an anatomy or pathology specimen could not be completely compared to finding an object or making a simple observation, as dissecting as well as some experimental practices were also involved. Heterogeneous practices thus coexisted within collecting in anatomy and pathology. Epistemological as well as pragmatic tensions arose. On top of Kohler's framework, I introduce Sabina Leonelli's concept of "data journey" to offer a narrative of the diversity of collecting practices involved in the Société Anatomique de Paris and the Musée Dupuytren. I use the concept to analyse how this diversity of practices impacted knowledge production.

Legal Positivism's Internal Morality.

This article examines the jurisprudential arguments elaborated in David Dyzenhaus's The Long Arc of Legality. In particular, it looks into the main claim of the book: that the fact of 'very unjust laws' is central to illuminating the idea of law's authority, the elaboration of which Dyzenhaus takes to be the purpose of legal theory. The article analyses Dyzenhaus's own normative proposal in this matter, which consists of a version of legal positivism committed to Lon Fuller's principles of the internal morality of law, with the corollary of a conception of the judicial role as bound to a duty to apply these internal principles of legality when exercising their main function. While I cast some doubts on the feasibility of constructing the judge's function that way, in the end I celebrate Dyzenhaus's attempt at refining legal positivism's identity, especially in light of the ongoing debate with contemporary anti-positivism.

The Official Story of the Law.

A legal system's 'official story' is its shared account of the law's structure and sources, which members of its legal community publicly advance and defend. In some societies, however, officials pay lip service to this shared account, while privately adhering to their own unofficial story instead. If the officials enforce some novel legal code while claiming fidelity to older doctrines, then which set of rules-if either-is the law? We defend the legal relevance of the official story, on largely Hartian grounds. Hart saw legal rules as determined by social rules accepted by a particular community. We argue that this acceptance requires no genuine normative commitment; agreement or compliance with the rules might even be feigned. And this community need not be limited to an official class, but includes all who jointly accept the rules. Having rejected these artificial limits, one can take the official story at its word.

A psicopatia e o criminoso nato: a modernização do positivismo criminológico / Psychopathy and the born criminal: the modernization of criminological positivism / Psicopatía y el criminal nato: la modernización del positivismo criminológico

O conceito de psicopatia é habitualmente associado a uma psicopatologia caracterizada pela falta de empatia, manipulação, agressividade, impulsividade, egocentrismo, crueldade e criminalidade. Já amplamente aceito pela comunidade científica, o conceito costuma ser utilizado em contextos jurídico-penais na validação de seu funcionamento punitivo. Dentre as concepções que alicerçaram o surgimento histórico desse conceito, destaca-se o papel do criminoso nato de Lombroso. Nesse sentido, este estudo buscou evidenciar como o conceito contemporâneo de psicopatia se firma enquanto modernização das concepções lombrosianas acerca do criminoso nato. Para isso, nos apoiamos na psicopatolologia para realizar um estudo comparativo entre as produções de Lombroso e as pesquisas contemporâneas acerca da psicopatia. Dentre as principais similaridades, destacamos a ênfase atribuída à suposta natureza criminal, etiologicamente decorrente de sua configuração orgânica. No mais, tais concepções também se assemelham no destaque de um déficit afetivo e moral, assim como na descrição da tendência a ser canhoto, egoísta, mentiroso, resistente à dor, narcisista, impulsivo, promíscuo, cruel, maléfico e inapto ao trabalho. Assim como fez Lombroso, as pesquisas acerca da psicopatia costumam ser realizadas com sujeitos já previamente criminalizados; condicionando uma seletividade étnico-racial e de classe. Descritos como sujeitos perigosos, incuráveis e intratáveis, ambas as concepções promovem a defesa do acirramento da punição jurídico-penal. Concluímos que a criminalidade nata de Lombroso continua a ser expressa no conceito de psicopatia, visto que as funções jurídico-penais e socioeconômicas de sua definição exercem o mesmo papel na legitimação científica da violência de Estado, encarceramento em massa e racismo estrutural.(AU)

Psychopathy is usually associated with a psychopathology characterized by a lack of empathy, manipulation, aggressiveness, impulsivity, egocentrism, cruelty, and criminality. Widely accepted by the scientific community, this concept is often used in legal and criminal contexts to validate its punitive functioning. Among the conceptions that underpinned the historical emergence of psychopathy, Lombroso's born criminal stands out. Hence, this study analyzes how the contemporary concept of psychopathy updates Lombrosian conceptions about the born criminal. To do so, we rely on psychopathology to conduct a comparative study between Lombroso's work and contemporary research on psychopathy. Among the main similarities, we highlight the emphasis given to the supposed criminal nature, etiologically arising from its organic configuration. Moreover, such conceptions emphasize an affective and moral deficit, and describe a tendency toward left-handedness, selfishness, lying, pain-resistance, narcissism, impulsivity, promiscuousness, cruelty, maliciousness and unfitness for work. As did Lombroso, research on psychopathy is usually conducted with individuals who have already been criminalized, conditioning an ethnic-racial and class selectivity. By describing these subjects as dangerous, incurable and intractable, both conceptions advocate for increased legal and penal punishment. In conclusion, Lombroso's natural criminality continues to underpin the concept of psychopathy, since its legal-criminal and socioeconomic functions play the same role in scientifically legitimizing state violence, mass incarceration, and structural racism.(AU)

La psicopatía es un concepto generalmente asociado a una psicopatología que se caracteriza por la falta de empatía, la manipulación, agresividad, impulsividad, egocentrismo, crueldad y criminalidad. Ya ampliamente aceptado por la comunidad científica, este concepto se utiliza a menudo en contextos legales para validar su funcionamiento punitivo. Entre los conceptos que fundamentaron el surgimiento histórico de este concepto, destaca el papel del criminal nato de Lombroso. En este contexto, este estudio buscó mostrar cómo el concepto contemporáneo de psicopatía se establece como la modernización de las concepciones lombrosianas sobre el criminal nato. Para eso, se utiliza la psicopatología para realizar un estudio comparativo entre las producciones de Lombroso y la investigación contemporánea sobre psicopatía. Entre las principales similitudes, destaca el énfasis atribuido a su supuesta naturaleza criminal, resultado etiológico de su configuración orgánica. Además, estas concepciones también son similares al resaltar un déficit afectivo y moral, así como al describir la tendencia a ser zurdo, egoísta, mentiroso, resistente al dolor, narcisista, impulsivo, promiscuo, cruel, malévolo e inadecuado para el trabajo. Como hizo Lombroso, los estudios sobre psicopatía se suelen realizar con sujetos que ya han sido criminalizados; condicionando una selectividad étnica, racial y de clase. Calificados como sujetos peligrosos, incurables e intratables, ambas concepciones promueven la defensa del aumento de la pena legal. Se concluye que la criminalidad nata de Lombroso continúa expresándose en el concepto de psicopatía, ya que las funciones penales y socioeconómicas de su definición juegan el mismo papel en la legitimación científica de la violencia estatal, encarcelamiento masivo y racismo estructural.(AU)

Serviço social tradicional e a "ordem": elementos para um debate / Tradicional social work and "the order": elements for a debate / El trabajo social tradicional y el "orden": elementos para un debate

O presente ensaio parte do pressuposto que dá conta da convivência, no Serviço Social, de traços tradicionais e renovados em uma relação dialética. O texto traz a ênfase na proposta de aproximação com os traços tradicionais em um período de monopólio do conservadorismo da profissão, tentando, nos limites de um artigo , apresentar algumas das matrizes teóricas que o influenciaram e podem, de alguma forma, se atualizar, com destaque para aquelas orientadas pelo "espírito positivista" como o higienismo e o funcionalismo, e aquelas de cariz doutrinário como o neotomismo. Esta análise subsidia habilidade importante para assistentes sociais, qual seja, a capacidade de leitura crítica da realidade e identificação das teorias que vêm permeando seu exercício profissional, tanto em requisições institucionais quanto em respostas profissionais. Conclui-se que a presença de tais perspectivas confere uma característica eclética ao serviço social tradicional, trazendo, contudo, como elemento fundamental, a manutenção da ordem burguesa e de um horizonte de "coesão social", provocador de resignação, apartado da noção de transformação social como possibilidade histórica. Ancoram-se , contudo, na moralização da questão social e, atualizadas, levam o exercício profissional para um caminho que o afasta do compromisso com as lutas da classe trabalhadora.(AU)

This essay starts from the assumption that accounts for the coexistence, in Social Work, of traditional and renewed traits in a dialectical relationship. The text emphasizes the proposal of approximation with the traditional traits in a period of monopoly of the conservatism of the profession, trying, within the limits of an article, to present some of the theoretical matrices that influenced it and can, in some way, be updated, with emphasis on those guided by the "positivist spirit" such as hygienism and functionalism, and those of a doctrinal nature such as neo-Thomism. This analysis supports an important skill for social workers, that is, the ability to critically read reality and identify the theories that have permeated their professional practice, both in institutional requests and in professional responses. It is concluded that the presence of such perspectives confers an eclectic characteristic to the traditional social service, bringing, however, as a fundamental element, the maintenance of the bourgeois order and a horizon of "social cohesion", provoking resignation, separated from the notion of transformation. social as a historical possibility. However, they are anchored in the moralization of the social issue and, updated, take professional practice to a path that distances it from the commitment to the struggles of the working class.(AU)

Este ensayo parte del supuesto de que da cuenta de la coexistencia, en el Trabajo Social, de rasgos tradicionales y renovados en una relación dialéctica. El texto enfatiza la aproximación propuesta con los rasgos tradicionales en un período de monopolio del conservadurismo de la profesión, intentando, dentro de los límites de un artículo, presentar algunas de las matrices teóricas que influyeron en ella y pueden, de alguna manera, ser actualizadas, con énfasis en los guiados por el "espíritu positivista" como el higienismo y el funcionalismo, y los de carácter doctrinal como el neotomismo. Este análisis sustenta una habilidad importante para los trabajadores sociales, a saber, la capacidad de leer críticamente la realidad e identificar las teorías que han ido permeando su práctica profesional, tanto en las demandas institucionales como en las respuestas profesionales. Se concluye que la presencia de tales perspectivas otorga un carácter ecléctico al trabajo social tradicional, trayendo, sin embargo, como elemento fundamental, el mantenimiento del orden burgués y un horizonte de "cohesión social", provocando resignación, además de la noción de transformación. como posibilidad histórica. Se anclan, sin embargo, en la moralización de la cuestión social y, al actualizarse, llevan la práctica profesional por un camino que la aleja del compromiso con las luchas de la clase obrera.(AU)

Erratum: Quantification in experimental psychology and pragmatic epistemology: Tension between the scientific imperative and the social imperative.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.603617.].

Why Pheidippides could not believe in the 'Central Governor Model': Popper's philosophy applied to choose between two exercise physiology theories.

An important epistemological problem has been faced by Exercise Physiologists. On one hand, one theory explains the fatigue through a ceiling effect of oxygen uptake. On the other hand, the new theory proposes that an encephalon mechanism would stop the effort before a catastrophic homeostasis failure. Many physiologists have looked for evidence to support their favourite theory even though the induction logic problem does not allow to prove whether truth is discovered; however, it is possible to prove that it does not occur. When some researchers fail to test their hypotheses, they use relativism to bring up their theories again. Noakes and his colleagues have based their theory on relativism, because it is impossible to refute by empirical observation. It also doesn't explain all phenomena that the oldest Hill's theory is able to explain. Noakes's theory isn't more accurate in its previsions. Noakes did not check whether the oxygen uptake plateau occurs in suitable tests to measure on the mouth what happens in the muscles. Finally, it doesn't propose new tests for the encephalon role during maximal effort, as that is expected in scientific work. For all of these reasons, it is possible to conclude there are no advantages in switching to the "Central Governor" theory.

Understanding dynamic complexity in context-Enriching contextual analysis in implementation science from a constructivist perspective.

Context in implementation science includes not only characteristics of a setting in which an intervention will be delivered, but also social systems (e.g., interrelationships). Context is dynamic and interacts with both, the intervention and its implementation. Therefore, contextual analysis is recognized as an indispensable part of implementation science methodology: it provides the foundation for successful and sustainable implementation projects. Yet, driven by the prevailing post-positivist understanding of context, contextual analysis typically focuses on individual characteristics of context i.e., contextual dynamics and interactions go unnoticed. Conducting contextual analysis from a constructivist perspective promotes a multilayered approach, building a more comprehensive understanding of context, and thus facilitating successful implementation. In this article, we highlight the limitations of prevailing perspectives on context and approaches to contextual analysis. We then describe how contextual analysis can be enriched by working from a constructivist perspective. We finish with a discussion of the methodological and practical implications the proposed changes would entail. Emerging literature attempts to address both the concept of context and methods for contextual analysis. Various theories, models and frameworks consider context, however, many of these are reductionistic and do not acknowledge the dynamic nature of context or interactions within it. To complement recent conceptualizations of context, we suggest consider the following five constructivist concepts: 1) social space; 2) social place; 3) agency; 4) sensation; and 5) embodiment. We demonstrate the value of these concepts using COVID-19 vaccination uptake as an example and integrate the concepts in the Context and Implementation of Complex Interventions (CICI) framework-an implementation science framework that pays ample attention to context. To study context from a constructivist perspective, we also suggest additional considerations in view of methodologies for data collection and analysis, e.g., rapid ethnographic methods. A constructivist perspective contributes to a stronger conceptualization of contextual analysis. Considering the five constructivist concepts helps to overcome contextual analysis' current shortcomings, while revealing complex dynamics that usually go unnoticed. Thus, more comprehensive understanding of context can be developed to inform subsequent phases of an implementation project, thereby maximizing an intervention's uptake and sustainability.

Julian Ochorowicz's experiments with Eusapia Palladino 1894: The temporality of mass media and the crisis of local credibility.

Julian Ochorowicz (1850-1917) belonged to the first generation of psychologists who regarded this discipline as a scientific, positive endeavor. At the same time, he was a representative of psychic sciences, following a strictly positivist attitude to researching psychic phenomena. This article discusses the key event of his career, experiments with the famous medium Eusapia Palladino, in Warsaw, between late 1893 and early 1894. Ochorowicz's séances with Palladino attracted wide local and international attention and improved his standing as an internationally leading psychic researcher. In Warsaw, however, these experiments were fiercely controversial and, as a result, Ochorowicz was discredited and left the city. As I argue, this dissociation of credibilities was the outcome of a changing media landscape in the late nineteenth century. While Ochorowicz's strategy of boundary-work and asserting his credibility aimed at scholarly media, it proved fatal when facing intensive, daily coverage in the popular press.

Agency: What Does It Mean to Be a Human Being?

This paper will look at the results of what has been termed "the crisis of modernism" and the related rise of postmodern perspectives in the 19th and 20th centuries. It concentrates on what is arguably the chief casualty of this crisis - human agency - and the social science that has developed out of the crisis. We argue that modern and postmodern social science ultimately obviate human agency in the understanding of what it means to be a human being. Attention is given to the contemporary intellectual world and the way in which it has been deeply informed by neo-Hegelian and other postmodern scholarly trends, particularly in accounting for how agency has come to play little role in social science understanding of human action. The paper also offers an alternative conception of human agency to the commonly endorsed libertarian model of free choice. Finally, the paper argues that this view of agency preserves meaning and purpose in human action and counters the pervasive social science worldview that sacrifices agency and meaning to powerful invisible abstractions.

What Bohr wanted Carnap to learn from quantum mechanics.

Niels Bohr's interpretation of quantum mechanics is often cast as positivist and sometimes explicitly claimed to be influenced by logical positivists due to some similarities in their thinking. While it is certainly the case that some logical positivists attempted to recruit Bohr, this paper argues that Bohr had interests of his own in the logical positivists. Bohr's interpretation of quantum mechanics focuses on observation, the use of classical concepts in quantum mechanics, and indeterminacy of quantum processes as opposed to uncertainty of measurement. His view thereby shares some common ground with the logical positivists' views on verification, the observation language, and anti-metaphysics. But Bohr also emphasized complementarity: that certain pairs of concepts - such as position and momentum - are mutually exclusive in quantum mechanics since they, according to Bohr, are only meaningful relative to different experimental arrangements. Bohr believed that complementary brought a general epistemological lesson for all of science that an objective description of nature is not separable from the observational and experimental conditions under which we explore nature. Motivated by the common ground between himself and logical positivism, Bohr tried to persuade the logical positivists and Carnap in particular to adopt and champion complementarity as well as part of their unity of science program. Though his efforts ultimately proved in vain, Bohr's attempts to influence logical positivism disprove the claim that his engagement with them was reluctant and purposefully limited.

The Real Problem with Hypothetical Constructs.

A recent discussion in this journal revolved around the issue of whether postulating internal clocks is harmful or beneficial to scientific psychology, and how. I argue that this and other discussions on the topic have yet to address the real problem: The concept of a hypothetical construct is unintelligible. Psychologists agree that all entities that constitute hypothetical constructs are unobservable, importantly different from observable entities, including overt behavior and its environment. The root issue at hand here, then, is the observable-unobservable distinction. Psychologists have implicitly but erroneously taken it for granted as sufficiently unproblematic to warrant meaningful discussions based on it, when in fact it is a pernicious untenable remnant of logical positivism. All previous discussions of hypothetical constructs in psychology have overlooked arguments against this view in the philosophy of science. These arguments are sufficiently compelling to at least question, if not cease altogether, talk of observability, unobservability, and HCs in psychology as useless, even harmful.

The Game of Science and Puzzles of Paradigm.

Zagaria, Andó́ and Zennaro (in this issue) have offered that the discipline of psychology is fraught with conceptual chaos and a multiplicity of constructs. They have also assessed psychology to be a soft science, with much potential to be a hard science, should it allow itself to be unified by the principles offered by evolutionary psychology. With this approach, psychology would transition from its pre-paradigmatic to a paradigmatic status. In this commentary, we question their premise, method and conclusion, and finally submit that the preoccupation with paradigm is connected with a positivist view of scientific knowledge production. Psychological constructs are not ostensive in nature and cannot be treated as matter is in the hard sciences. This is neither possible, nor desirable. Additionally, such constructs are located in various theoretical perspectives, necessary to understand their multifaceted nature. We question the proposal of evolutionary psychology as an alternative meta-theory. Psychology is essentially a human endeavor, and we must step out of our need to follow the acultural Euro-American vision of positivist science, and instead build an enterprise that can be plural, contextually sensitive and incorporate the complexity and interdisciplinarity needed to be truly successful at approaching the human condition.

Criterios de validez de una investigación cualitativa: tres vertientes epistemológicas para un mismo propósito / Validity criteria for qualitative research: three epistemological strands for the same purpose

Con el propósito de clarificar la evaluación de la validez y calidad de una investigación cualitativa, luego de una revisión bibliográfica, se agrupan diferentes criterios de validez dentro tres vertientes epistemológicas que fundamentan el proceso de investigación: la vertiente positivista, la pragmática y la postmoderna o postestructuralista. Primero se describe cómo las nociones de validez pueden ser entendidas desde el positivismo, para después mostrar un intento de redefinición y reelaboración de los conceptos de validez y confiabilidad desde la lógica interpretativa, terminando en la explicación de los criterios postmodernos y postestructuralistas que niegan toda posibilidad de emplear estos términos o pretensiones en cualquier investigación cualitativa.

In order to clarify the assessment of the validity and quality of qualitative research, following a literature review, different validity criteria are grouped into three epistemological strands that underpin the research process: positivist, pragmatic and postmodern/poststructuralist. We first describe how the notions of validity can be understood from positivism, and then show an attempt to redefine and rework the concepts of validity and reliability from interpretative logic, ending with an explanation of the postmodern and poststructuralist criteria that deny any possibility of using these terms or claims in any qualitative research.

The Influence of Physical Activity, Anxiety, Resilience and Engagement on the Optimism of Older Adults.

The purpose of this study was to learn how physical activity, anxiety, resilience and engagement can influence optimism in older adults. An observational, quantitative, descriptive and transversal design was used with non-probabilistic sampling. A descriptive statistical analysis of the sample, Cronbach's alpha test of internal consistency and linear correlation using Pearson's correlation coefficient (r) were performed. In addition, a t-Student test, analysis of variance (ANOVA), Kolmogorov-Smirnov test of normality and Levene test of homogeneity, as well as a multivariate linear regression model, were conducted. Participants who had not engaged in physical activity showed an increased total anxiety and significantly greater decrease in concentration compared to those who had engaged in physical activity. The Revised Life Orientation Test (LOT-R), Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES) and resilience of participants who had not engaged in physical activity were significantly lower than those of the participants who had engaged in physical activity. Those with a partner showed significantly lower decreases in concentration compared to single women. Regarding UWES, the current scores and dedication of couples were significantly higher than singles, as for resilience. In addition, the levels of pessimism in participants living on the coast were significantly higher compared to those living inland; in addition, a greater number of days with less anxiety is seen in those who performed physical activity. A multivariate linear regression model, F(7, 349) = 30.6, p < 0.001, explained 38% of the variance of LOT-R; those attending a public center had a lower LOT-R than those who did not, and high values of anxiety were associated with low levels of LOT-R, while high values of resilience were associated with high values of LOT-R. The results from the study provide support for future programs for older adults, in order to be able to determine in a much more precise way the objectives of programs intended for users of this age group.

Interculturalidad en salud a partir de los diferentes sistemas médicos / Interculturality on health from different medical systems

Introducción: La interculturalidad en salud se ha desarrollado a partir del concepto étnico. Objetivo: comprender las culturas médicas para fomentar un diálogo intercultural. Método: El estudio se realizó por medio de una revisión de literatura en revistas indizadas, así como en la base de datos de algunas organizaciones e instituciones nacionales e internacionales. Resultados: Cada sistema médico tiene una filosofía sobre la que desarrolla sus métodos así la Medicina Convencional se basa en el positivismo, las Medicinas Complementarias en el Vitalismo como la Homeopatía y para las Medicinas Ancestrales su relación con la Naturaleza como por ejemplo la Cosmovisión Andina. Conclusiones: partiendo de conocer la filosofía que inspira a cada cultura médica, se deben generar espacios de diálogo para atender las necesidades de prevención, curación y promoción de la salud.

Vertentes epistemológicas das políticas públicas: entre as análises descritiva e prescritiva / Epistemological strands of public policies: between descriptive and prescriptive analyses / Courants épistémologiques des politiques publiques: entre les analyses descriptives et prescriptives / Vertientes epistemológicas de las políticas públicas: entre los análisis descriptivo y prescriptivo

Resumo Este artigo é uma pesquisa que visa a demonstrar a relevância do debate epistemológico para compreender as bases teóricas, vertentes e tipos de metodologia de análise que balizam o campo das políticas públicas, com base em revisão de literatura de autores clássicos como Putnam, Arretche, Farah, Secchi e Howlett. O estudo demonstra que a distinção entre fato e valor é importante para compreender a diferença entre a análise teórico-descritiva e a análise aplicada-prescritiva de políticas públicas, assim como a polêmica entre as vertentes positivistas e pós-positivistas que marcou a virada argumentativa a partir de 1990. Conclui-se que a compreensão das questões epistemológicas é de grande relevância para fundamentar metodologias de análise.

Abstract This article aims to demonstrate the relevance of the epistemological debate to understand the theoretical bases, the strands and the types of analysis methodology that target the field of public policies. This is a theoretical-explanatory research, based on a literature review of classical authors, such as Putnam, Arretche, Farah, Secchi and Howlett. The study demonstrates that the epistemological distinction between fact and value is an important key to understand on the one hand, the difference between the theoretical-descriptive analysis and the applied-prescriptive analysis of public policies, and on the other, the controversy between the positivist and post positivist strands, which marked the argumentative turn starting in 1990. It was concluded that the understanding of the epistemological issues is of great relevance to the rationale behind the analysis methodologies.

Résumé L'objectif de cet article est de demontrer l'importance du débat épistémologique pour comprendre quelles sont les bases théoriques, les différents courants et les types de méthodologie d'analyse qui servent de répère au domaine des politiques publiques. Après avoir passé en revue les travaux classiques sur le sujet des auteurs tels que Putnam, Arretche, Farah, Secchi et Howlett, ce travail démontre que la distinction entre fait et valeur est importante pour comprendre non seulement la différence entre l'analyse théorique descriptive et l'analyse appliquée prescriptive des politiques publiques, mais aussi la controverse entre les courants positivistes et post-positivistes à l'origine du tournant argumentatif initié en 1990. La conclusion montre que la compréhension des questions épistémologiques est d'une grande pertinence pour étayer les méthodologies d'analyse.

Resumen Este artículo es una investigación que tiene como objetivo demostrar la relevancia del debate epistemológico para comprender las bases teóricas, las vertientes y tipos de metodología de análisis que guían el campo de las Políticas Públicas, basándose para ello en la revisión de la literatura de autores clásicos, como Putnam, Arretche, Farah, Secchi y Howlett. Se demuestra que la distinción entre hecho y valor es importante para comprender la diferencia entre el análisis teórico-descriptivo y el análisis aplicado-prescriptivo de políticas públicas. Del mismo modo es significativa la controversia entre las vertientes positivistas y pospositivistas que marcó un punto de inflexión a partir de 1990. Se concluye que la comprensión de las cuestiones epistemológicas es de gran relevancia para fundamentar las metodologías de análisis.