Perspectives from individuals who use augmentative and alternative communication on communication access in restaurant settings.

Communication accessibility has been defined by many scholars and organizations, but it is generally described as clear communication that everyone can access and understand. The objective of this manuscript was to assess communication accessibility for people who use augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) within a variety of restaurant settings through interviewing five adults who utilize AAC as their primary form of communication. Interviews were qualitatively coded and revealed common communication accessibility themes restaurants and restaurant staff were not implementing, such as direct communication and increasing AAC awareness. The implications of the interview data include its potential usage in training restaurant staff and management to utilize communication accessibility tips and features to increase the communication accessibility of the restaurant patrons they serve, especially for individuals who use AAC. This could then lead researchers in creating a formal training schema for restaurants to implement into their businesses reliably and effectively.

Destination Restaurants' Practices and the Production of Locality: The Case of Michelin Restaurants in China.

Dining plays a pivotal role in the travel experience, with numerous studies identifying the significant impacts of restaurant attributes on tourists' destination experiences and their sense of place. The identified attributes include the origin of food produce, menu design, the physical and social servicescape, and restaurant reputation, all of which have the potential to enhance customers' sense of place. Therefore, based on theories of the production of locality, this study explores how destination restaurants "put place on the plate" and identifies how destination restaurants promote place. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with the representatives of seventeen Michelin (one star, two stars, three stars, and Bib Gourmand)-awarded restaurants across Mainland China. The results reveal three primary strategies employed by destination restaurants in promoting place: forging partnerships with the local community to produce, present, and reproduce localities; leveraging local knowledge embedded in the local produce, recipes, cooking techniques, and local culture; and practicing translocality to introduce a regional cuisine to diverse and cosmopolitan consumers. This research provides a comprehensive understanding of the way in which notions of locality and place are used by destination restaurants and the way in which this may promote not only restaurants but also regional culinary cultures and destination attractiveness.

Two online randomised controlled trials examining effects of alcohol calorie labelling on hypothetical ordering of calories from alcohol and food.

BACKGROUND: Providing calorie information for alcoholic beverages is a potential public-health intervention which may serve to reduce alcohol use but also prevalence of overweight/obesity. Equivocal evidence has been found for the effectiveness of alcohol calorie information at reducing drinking intentions as well as purchasing and consumption. However, the extent at which calorie information 'on-trade' will impact consumer behaviour for both alcohol and food consumption has not been investigated. AIMS: (1) To examine the presence of alcohol calorie labelling for hypothetical purchasing of alcohol and food in typical UK restaurant scenarios. (2) To determine the characteristics of individuals who will be likely to choose to view alcohol calorie labels. METHODS: Two online randomised control trials using a hypothetical menu selection. In experiment one (N = 325) participants were randomised to the presence or absence of alcohol calorie labels. In experiment two (N = 1081) individuals were randomised to alcohol calorie labels absent or the choice to view alcohol calorie labels. The primary outcome for each study was calories ordered from alcoholic beverages. RESULTS: There was no evidence that the presence of alcohol calorie information on restaurant menus impacted the number of calories ordered from alcoholic beverages or from food and soft drinks. Younger individuals and individuals who exhibit greater motives for good health were more likely to choose to view alcohol calorie labels. CONCLUSIONS: In two online, hypothetical experiments there is no evidence for alcohol calorie labelling impacting consumer decisions to order alcohol or food. Given the choice, a self-selecting group of individuals who are more motivated by health concerns will view alcohol calorie labels, and in turn may be less likely to order alcohol.

An outbreak of Salmonella Infantis linked to shredded pork products from an unlicensed source in multiple health districts, Ontario, Canada, 2021.

Background: An outbreak of Salmonella Infantis was associated with the consumption of shredded pork products at multiple restaurants in Ontario between July 2021 and October 2021. The outbreak involved 36 case-patients from six public health units. The implicated shredded pork products were obtained from an unlicensed source. This is the largest reported outbreak of Salmonella Infantis linked to restaurant food exposures in Ontario, with complexities related to the investigation of unlicensed foods. This article aims to describe the epidemiological, food safety and laboratory investigations that led to the identification and removal of the source of the outbreak from implicated restaurants, including the challenges encountered while investigating an outbreak related to an unlicensed source of food. Methods: Epidemiological and laboratory analyses were conducted to identify the source of the outbreak. Food safety investigations were conducted to ascertain the origin and distribution of the implicated food. Results: Whole-genome sequencing identified the outbreak strain from the isolates of 36 case-patients across six public health units in Ontario. Seven case-patients (19%) were hospitalized. No deaths were reported. The outbreak was linked to shredded pork products (i.e., rinds or skins) that were distributed by an unlicensed meat processor and consumed at various restaurants that served Southeast Asian fusion cuisine concentrated in the Greater Toronto Area. The product was removed from implicated restaurants. Conclusion: Historically, foods from unlicensed sources have been implicated in multiple large outbreaks and continue to be of significant public health risk. The outbreak investigation emphasized the threat of food from unlicensed sources to the public's health and the importance of additional public health interventions to prevent outbreaks linked to unlicensed sources.

Sociodemographic characteristics help predict Canadian urbanites' acceptability of restaurant food environment policies.

Introduction: Public acceptability of policies aiming to improve the healthfulness of the restaurant food environment is key to their successful implementation. Yet, the acceptability of these policies remains ambiguous, especially across diverse population groups. This study aims to examine associations between sociodemographic characteristics and acceptability levels of three restaurant food environment policies of varying degrees of intrusiveness across 17 urban Canadian jurisdictions. Methods: Data was extracted from the THEPA survey, one of the largest and most jurisdictionally comprehensive surveys on intervention acceptability (N = 27,162). To account for potential jurisdictional differences in acceptability, for each policy, multilevel logistic regression models were developed. Results: Results indicated that, on average, those in complete agreement with the implementation of the targeted policies represented 20.3%-26.9% of participants, depending on the policy. Acceptability varied according to policy intrusiveness, jurisdiction, and participants' sociodemographic characteristics. Women, individuals with household incomes of <$40,000/year, immigrants from a high-income country other than Canada, and Indigenous peoples were more likely to express complete agreement with all policies, versus men, participants with household incomes of $40,000-$79,999/year, Canadian-born individuals, and non-Indigenous individuals. A lower likelihood of expressing complete agreement with all policies was observed for those with a $80,000-$119,999/year household income, versus those with a $40,000-$79,999/year household income. For selected policies and models, other sociodemographic characteristics (i.e., age, education, and being born in a low-or middle-income country) predicted acceptability. The examined sociodemographic characteristics did not explain jurisdictional differences in acceptability. Discussion: Understanding jurisdictional differences in acceptability merits further research. Policy implications involve engaging diverse sociodemographic groups in conversations about acceptable ways in which their restaurant food environment could be rendered more healthful.

Association between density of food retailers and fitness centers and gestational diabetes mellitus in Eastern Massachusetts, USA: population-based study.

Background: Few studies have investigated the relationship between the food and physical activity environment and odds of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). This study quantifies the association between densities of several types of food establishments and fitness centers with the odds of having GDM. Methods: The density of supermarkets, fast-food restaurants, full-service restaurants, convenience stores and fitness centers at 500, 1000 and 1500 m (m) buffers was counted at residential addresses of 68,779 pregnant individuals from Eastern Massachusetts during 2000-2016. The 'healthy food index' assessed the relative availability of healthy (supermarkets) vs unhealthy (fast-food restaurants, convenience stores) food retailers. Multivariable logistic regression quantified the cross-sectional association between exposure variables and the odds of having GDM, adjusting for individual and area-level characteristics. Effect modification by area-level socioeconomic status (SES) was assessed. Findings: In fully adjusted models, pregnant individuals living in the highest density tertile of fast-food restaurants had higher GDM odds compared to those living in the lowest density tertile (500 m: odds ratio (OR):1.17 95% CI: [1.04, 1.31]; 1000 m: 1.33 95% CI: [1.15, 1.53]); 1500 m: 1.18 95% CI: [1.01, 1.38]). Greater residential density of supermarkets was associated with lower odds of GDM (1000 m: 0.86 95% CI: [0.74, 0.99]; 1500 m: 0.86 95% CI: [0.72, 1.01]). Similarly, living in the highest fitness center density tertile was associated with decreased GDM odds (500 m:0.87 95% CI: [0.76, 0.99]; 1500 m: 0.89 95% CI: [0.79, 1.01]). There was no evidence of effect modification by SES and no association found between the healthy food index and GDM odds. Interpretation: In Eastern Massachusetts, living near a greater density of fast-food establishments was associated with higher GDM odds. Greater residential access to supermarkets and fitness centers was associated with lower the odds of having GDM. Funding: NIH.

Realizing the soft infrastructure mixing of Shanghai's catering industry based on land expansion and population growth.

This study takes Shanghai's restaurants as a case study of urban soft infrastructure, employing big data sets from third-party website platforms for multi-source data fusion, to deeply analyze the impact of urban land expansion and population dynamics on the availability, affordability, acceptability, and accessibility of restaurants. The case study reveals that, despite the Shanghai municipal authorities' focus on mitigating overcrowding in the central urban areas, soft infrastructure such as restaurants in new urban districts remains at a relative disadvantage. The decentralization of soft infrastructure to peripheral urban areas has not met policy expectations, presenting a spatial imbalance characterized by greater provision in the main urban areas than in new urban districts, and higher in Puxi than in Pudong. The single-threshold model uncovers that the positive impact of land urbanization and population dynamics on restaurant convenience undergoes a transformation after reaching a certain critical point, where the linear relationship and synchronous growth shift. By controlling the development area of construction land and the population density within regions, a dynamic combination of availability, affordability, acceptability, and accessibility of restaurants can be achieved. This forms a spatio-temporal management strategy that integrates land, population, and comfort facilities, potentially alleviating the inequity of comfort facilities in Shanghai and the central urban areas' siphoning effect.

Evaluation of Fast-Food Restaurant Kids' Meal Beverage Offerings 1 Year After a State-Level Healthy Beverage Default Policy.

Introduction: Ordering from kids' menus and children's restaurant consumption is associated with greater purchasing and intake, respectively, of sugar-sweetened beverages. In response, policymakers have enacted strategies to improve the healthfulness of kids' meal offerings. This study investigated restaurant kids' meal beverage offerings and compliance with an Illinois healthy beverage default act, effective from January 1, 2022. Methods: Using a pre-post intervention (Illinois)-comparison (Wisconsin) site research design, fast-food restaurant audit data were collected before and 1 year after the Illinois Healthy Beverage Default Act from 6 platforms: restaurant interior and drive-thru menu boards and websites/applications and 3 third-party ordering platforms (DoorDash, Uber Eats, and Grubhub). Analyses included 62-110 restaurants across platforms. Difference-in-differences-weighted logistic regression models with robust SEs, clustered on restaurants, were estimated to assess pre to 1-year postpolicy changes in overall compliance for each audit setting in Illinois relative to that in Wisconsin. Results: This study found no statistically significant (p<0.05) changes in the compliance of kids' meal beverage default offerings associated with the enactment of the Illinois Healthy Beverage Default Act in Illinois relative to that in Wisconsin at fast-food restaurants. There were some observed differences in results in the restaurants' physical locations versus online that are worth noting. That is, after the enactment of the Illinois Healthy Beverage Default Act, the results showed greater odds of fast-food restaurants exclusively offering healthy beverage defaults with kids' meals on restaurant interior (OR=1.83, 95% CI=0.93, 3.58) and drive-thru (OR=2.38, 95% CI=0.95, 5.96) menus, with weak statistical significance (p<0.10). However, the policy was not associated with either meaningful or statistically significant changes in healthy beverage default offerings on restaurant websites or third-party online ordering platforms. Conclusions: This study found limited evidence of changes in kids' meal beverage offerings attributable to the Illinois Healthy Beverage Default Act. Future investigations of communication channels that support awareness and implementation and the resources required for implementation and enforcement may provide insight that is key to improving compliance.

Eco-efficiency as a prioritization tool in the reduction of food waste in restaurants.

Striving towards eco-efficiency means creating more value while generating a product or service with a reduced environmental impact. This quest makes it possible to link objectives associated with both the environmental and the economic pillars of sustainable development. Eco-efficiency could therefore be an interesting tool to evaluate the impacts of food waste (FW) and the potential of various food waste reduction strategies (FWRSs). However, the use of eco-efficiency to assess the interest in implementing FWRSs has never been explored in the foodservice sector. This work firstly aims to carry out an in-depth analysis of the costs of the FW generation of an independent restaurant. Secondly, based on these costs data and on some previously documented environmental impact data with a life cycle assessment according to ISO 14045:2012, this work also aims to model and evaluate the performance of FWRSs from a perspective of improving a restaurant eco-efficiency. The impact of each FWRS on the eco-efficiency of the restaurant under study was measured by modeling their economic and environmental net benefits over three implementation periods (one week, one month and six months) and under scenarios of strong and weak adherence. The study identified the most eco-efficient FWRSs to be implemented to reduce FW in the studied restaurant. In addition, key factors affecting eco-efficiency were raised, namely the period following the implementation of FWRSs, the FW reduction rate between FWRSs affecting the same type of FW, the specificity of the FWRSs and their ability to limit the waste of vegetables, meat, sea products and food requiring significant processing time by the cooks. Thus, these elements will guide foodservice managers in adopting FWRSs aimed at reducing FW generated in their restaurant and at improving its eco-efficiency. In addition, this work proposes a new methodology intended for the scientific community to identify FWRSs that have a strong impact on a restaurant eco-efficiency.

Factors influencing baby boomers' intention to choose a dish featuring plant-based meat alternatives (PBMA) at a restaurant: Findings from an online panel study.

The purpose of this study is to examine the psychosocial determinants of baby boomers'-born between 1946 and 1964- intention to choose a menu item featuring plant-based meat alternatives (PBMA) when dining out. The specific objectives are as follows: 1) to identify the baby boomer generation's health-related perceptions about PBMA, and 2) to examine the factors that influence baby boomers' intention to choose a dish featuring PBMA at a restaurant. A total of 174 responses obtained using the Qualtrics panel were analyzed with content analysis and partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). The findings identified various underlying perceptions of baby boomers toward PBMA, such as perceived health outcomes, perceived availability, and willingness to purchase. Furthermore, subjective norm, cues to action, and self-identity were found to be significant predictors of the intention to choose a menu item featuring PBMA when dining out. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

Another view of sequential sampling in the birth process with immigration.

We explore properties of the family sizes arising in a linear birth process with immigration (BI). In particular, we study the correlation of the number of families observed during consecutive disjoint intervals of time. Letting S(a, b) be the number of families observed in (a, b), we study the expected sample variance and its asymptotics for p consecutive sequential samples [Formula: see text], for [Formula: see text]. By conditioning on the sizes of the samples, we provide a connection between [Formula: see text] and p sequential samples of sizes [Formula: see text], drawn from a single run of a Chinese Restaurant Process. Properties of the latter were studied in da Silva et al. (Bernoulli 29:1166-1194, 2023. https://doi.org/10.3150/22-BEJ1494 ). We show how the continuous-time framework helps to make asymptotic calculations easier than its discrete-time counterpart. As an application, for a specific choice of [Formula: see text], where the lengths of intervals are logarithmically equal, we revisit Fisher's 1943 multi-sampling problem and give another explanation of what Fisher's model could have meant in the world of sequential samples drawn from a BI process.

Front-of-Package-Label-Style Health Logos on Menus-Do Canadian Consumers Really Care about Menu Health Logos?

Public health policies have been widely utilized to improve population nutrition, such as the newly announced front-of-pack labels (FOPLs) that will be applied to Canadian prepackaged foods to help consumers make healthier selections. However, research on similar health logos in the food service sector has been limited. This study explores the potential application of FOPL-style health logos in the food service sector and its impact on consumer behaviors. A survey was conducted among 1070 Canadians to assess their awareness, perception, and support for health logos on restaurant menus. The results indicate that while participants value healthy food options when dining out, taste, price, and convenience remain the primary factors influencing their choices. Most participants were unaware of existing FOPL policies and demonstrated mixed responses regarding the influence of similar health logos on their restaurant selection. However, a majority expressed a desire to see FOPL-style health logos on menus, and nutrient profile ratings and logos indicating nutrient limitations or encouragements were listed as preferred health logos. Notably, females indicated higher supportiveness for FOPL-style health logos on menus and individuals with food allergies exhibited higher agreement in the likelihood of eating at a restaurant displaying labels. Additionally, findings revealed that FOPL-style health logos alone may not significantly deter consumers from purchasing labelled menu items, especially if price is affected. Overall, this study highlights the need for further understanding consumer perceptions to effectively develop and implement FOPL initiatives in the food service sector.

The Difference between PC-Based and Immersive Virtual Reality Food Purchase Environments on Useability, Presence, and Physiological Responses.

Computer simulations used to study food purchasing behavior can be separated into low immersion virtual environments (LIVE), which use personal computers and standard monitors to display a scene, and high immersion virtual environments (HIVE) which use virtual reality technology such as head-mounted displays to display a scene. These methods may differ in their ability to create feelings of presence or cybersickness that would influence the usefulness of these approaches. In this present study, thirty-one adults experienced a virtual supermarket or fast-food restaurant using a LIVE system or a HIVE system. Feelings of presence and cybersickness were measured using questionnaires or physiological responses (heart rate and electrodermal activity). The participants were also asked to rate their ability to complete the set task. The results of this study indicate that participants reported a higher sense of presence in the HIVE scenes as compared to the LIVE scenes (p < 0.05). The participant's heart rate and electrodermal activity were significantly higher in the HIVE scene treatment when compared to the LIVE scene (p < 0.05). There was no difference in the participant's ability to complete tasks in the different scenes. In addition, feelings of cybersickness were not different between the HIVE and LIVE scenes.

Foodborne Illness Complaint Systems Detect, and Restaurant Inspection Programs Prevent Restaurant-Associated Foodborne Illness Outbreaks.

Restaurants are important settings for foodborne illness transmission. Environmental health agencies routinely inspect restaurants to assess compliance with food safety regulations. They also evaluate foodborne illness complaints from consumers to detect potential outbreaks of foodborne illness. Local environmental health agencies were surveyed to identify methods used to conduct surveillance for consumer complaints of foodborne illness, link them to inspection grading and disclosure practices, and evaluate the association between these practices and the number of foodborne illness outbreaks in restaurant settings reported to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. We developed a novel framework for assessing the effectiveness of restaurant inspection grading and disclosure of inspection results while accounting for any biases introduced by surveillance factors that affect outbreak detection. Our findings showed the importance of routine restaurant inspection grading and disclosure practices as prevention measures and having a centralized database to manage consumer complaints as a useful surveillance tool for detecting outbreaks. Improving consumer complaint system structure and management can bolster outbreak detection and maximize limited public health resources while increasing the efficiency of complaint-based surveillance.

Are cooks more disgust sensitive? Preliminary examination of the food preparation hypothesis.

According to the food preparation hypothesis, sex differences in disgust sensitivity may stem from different sex roles that males and females played in our ancestral times. In current times, these differences may be reflected in varying levels of disgust sensitivity between people who frequently versus rarely engage in meal preparation, or who are versus are not professionally responsible for providing meals for others. To test this reasoning, we conducted a preregistered study with 493 individuals (55% female), with 280 of them working in the restaurant industry. Participants reported their weekly time spent on cooking-related activities and completed the Food Disgust Scale and pathogen subscale of Three Domain Disgust Scale. These measures capture specific, food-related disgust sensitivity, and generalised pathogen disgust sensitivity, respectively. We found that while time spent on cooking was not associated with disgust sensitivity, people professionally engaged in food preparation displayed higher levels of food-related disgust sensitivity. There was no effect of cooking on the generalised pathogen disgust sensitivity. Additionally, we observed sex differences in both types of disgust sensitivity and found that vegetarians exhibited lower disgust sensitivity than meat-eaters. Overall, our findings offer preliminary support for the food preparation hypothesis, and point out that the mechanisms adjusting our disgust sensitivity levels are category-specific, even within the broader pathogen disgust domain.

Sentiment analysis of restaurant customer satisfaction during COVID-19 pandemic in Pattaya, Thailand.

The tourism and hospitality industry, particularly the restaurant business, has been greatly affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. To comprehend customer behavior and preferences during this unprecedented time, it is crucial to analyze online restaurant customer reviews. Thus, this study utilized the valence aware dictionary for sentiment reasoning (VADER) model to examine TripAdvisor reviews of restaurants in Pattaya City, Chon Buri, Thailand, covering the period 2017-2022, which encompasses both pre-pandemic and pandemic years. The findings reveal a significant decrease in the number of reviews and a notable increase in negative sentiments during the COVID-19 pandemic compared to normal circumstances. We noticed two concern areas, i.e., service and staff, and food and taste, that should be addressed urgently. The findings of this study offer valuable insights into customer behavior and requirements, thereby empowering restaurant businesses to enhance service quality, satisfy customer requirements, and strategically plan for a post-COVID-19 future.

Survival characteristics of food and beverage businesses in a gentrified commercial area-A case study in Seoul, Korea.

Commercial gentrification is a common cause of urban transformation in modern cities. Former residential and industrial areas are being transformed into commercial ones specializing in the food and beverage (F&B) industry because of their unique atmosphere. However, F&B businesses in the gentrified commercial areas are prone to intense competition for survival that debate on the emerging commercial street's sustainability. Thus, this study analyzed F&B street businesses' survival characteristics where commercial gentrification has occurred. The research site was selected among Seoul's commercial streets by performing data analysis. The Cox proportional hazards model and urban spatial indicators were used to analyze the factors affecting survival time. The research findings were as follows: First, physical attractiveness, such as openness or visual accessibility, lowered the closure risk. Second, accessibility to cultural facilities or open spaces was beneficial for the nearby F&B demands; however, it occasionally intensified the competition. Finally, competitive businesses' agglomeration increased the closure risk, while non-competitive ones' agglomeration and diversification decreased it. This research's results could be useful for policymakers in promoting a more sustainable business environment for F&B entrepreneurs.

Using Crowdsourced Food Image Data for Assessing Restaurant Nutrition Environment: A Validation Study.

Crowdsourced online food images, when combined with food image recognition technologies, have the potential to offer a cost-effective and scalable solution for the assessment of the restaurant nutrition environment. While previous research has explored this approach and validated the accuracy of food image recognition technologies, much remains unknown about the validity of crowdsourced food images as the primary data source for large-scale assessments. In this paper, we collect data from multiple sources and comprehensively examine the validity of using crowdsourced food images for assessing the restaurant nutrition environment in the Greater Hartford region. Our results indicate that while crowdsourced food images are useful in terms of the initial assessment of restaurant nutrition quality and the identification of popular food items, they are subject to selection bias on multiple levels and do not fully represent the restaurant nutrition quality or customers' dietary behaviors. If employed, the food image data must be supplemented with alternative data sources, such as field surveys, store audits, and commercial data, to offer a more representative assessment of the restaurant nutrition environment.

Co-Dependency of IAQ in Functionally Different Zones of Open-Kitchen Restaurants Based on Sensor Measurements Explored via Mutual Information Analysis.

High-quality indoor air is essential in open-kitchen restaurants for ensuring a healthy workplace and comfortable conditions for visitors. In this study, indoor air quality interdependence between the kitchen and the dining zones in open-kitchen restaurants was analyzed. The method was based on measurements of selected air parameters using a sensor technique and mutual information (MI) analysis. A long-term approach (based on a several-hour time series) and a short-term approach (based on a several-minute time series) were applied. This study involved four open-kitchen restaurants. The indoor conditions were represented by the temperature, relative humidity, CO2 concentration, and content of the total volatile organic compounds (TVOC) in the air. The MI analyses showed that the long-term co-dependence of the indoor conditions between the kitchen and the dining zones was smaller during business hours (MI = 0.12 ÷ 0.40) compared to night hours (MI = 0.24 ÷ 0.58). The ranking of the long-term MI values for the individual air parameters was MICO2 (0.34) ≅ MIT (0.34) > MIRH (0.28) > MITVOC (0.23). The short-term interdependencies were smaller during night hours (median MI = 0.01 ÷ 0.56) compared to business hours (MI = 0.23 ÷ 0.61). Additionally, the short-term MI was subject to high temporal variability. The ranking of the short-term MI values for the individual air parameters was MICO2 (0.48) > MIT (0.46) > MIRH (0.37) > MITVOC (0.26). Due to the weak and highly variable co-dependence of the air parameters between the kitchen and dining areas, multi-zone monitoring of air parameters with an emphasis on TVOC measurements is recommended to ensure proper indoor conditions in open-kitchen restaurants. The presented approach may be applied to design indoor air quality monitoring and ventilation systems not only in open-kitchen restaurants but also in other interiors with functionally different zones.