Exemplary Self-Discipline, Leniency towards Others: Competitive Contexts Amplify the "Black Sheep Effect" in Restoring Ingroup Trust.

Intergroup interaction, a pivotal aspect of social interaction, encompasses both cooperation and competition. Group identity significantly impacts individual behaviors and decision-making processes. This influence manifests in two contrasting ways when addressing rule-breaking by interaction partners: in-group favoritism, where individuals are more lenient towards infractions committed by in-group members, and the black sheep effect, where in-group members are penalized for their rule-breaking. Although trust is crucial in intergroup interactions, the precise impact of group identity on trust restoration and the potential moderating role of intergroup interaction types remain to be elucidated. This study presents two experiments designed to explore these dynamics. In Study 1, the manipulation of group identity through a point estimation task was utilized to evaluate its impact on intergroup trust restoration via a series of repeated trust games. Study 2 aimed to explore the moderating role of intergroup interaction on intergroup trust restoration by contrasting cooperation and competition situations. The results uncovered a "black sheep effect", where participants demonstrated a greater propensity for trust restoration with out-group members than with in-group members. This effect, however, was only evident in competitive contexts. Conversely, in cooperative contexts, the individual's trust in the in-group and out-group members is effectively repaired. These findings contribute to a deeper comprehension of trust dynamics in intergroup interactions, promoting trust establishment and repair between diverse groups, thereby boosting team collaboration efficiency and mitigating conflicts.

Effect of automation failure type on trust development in driving automation systems.

The performance of a driving automation system (DAS) can influence the human drivers' trust in the system. This driving-simulator study examined how different types of DAS failures affected drivers' trust. The automation-failure type (no-failure, takeover-request, system-malfunction) was manipulated among 122 participants, when a critical hazard event occurred. The dependent measures included participants' trust ratings after each of seven drives and their takeover performance following the hazard. Results showed that trust improved before any automation failure occurred, demonstrating proper trust calibration toward the errorless system. In the takeover-request and system-malfunction conditions, trust decreased similarly in response to the automation failures, although the takeover-request condition had better takeover performance. For the drives after the automation failure, trust was gradually repaired but did not recover to the original level. This study demonstrated how trust develops and responds to DAS failures, informing future research for trust repair interventions in designing DASs.

Antecedents, Consequences, and the Role of Third Parties in the Trust Repair Process: Evidence Taken from Orthodontics.

Orthodontic treatment has popularized in Taiwan. Healthcare institutions can be responsive in their coping strategies and determine whether third-party intervention should take place involving medical disputes related to orthodontics in order to repair patient trust. This study draws on orthodontic treatment to explore the effect of various trust repair strategies employed by healthcare institutions and third-party involvement positively affecting outcomes related to trust repair. Patients were recruited among those who have undergone orthodontic treatments, and 353 valid scenario-based questionnaires were collected through an online survey. Results revealed that: (1) the affective and informational repair strategies positively impacted trust repair while the functional repair strategy did not; (2) trust repair positively impacted patient satisfaction/word-of-mouth and mediated between repair strategies and satisfaction/word-of-mouth; and (3) third-party involvement moderated the relationship between trust repair and word-of-mouth. The findings suggest that rather than receiving monetary compensation, patients usually prefer that healthcare institutions acknowledge their fault, offer apologies, and engage in active communications to clarify the causes of medical dispute. Further, an objective third party should be involved to mediate the medical disputes to afford satisfaction all around.

Verbal or Written? The Impact of Apology on the Repair of Trust: Based on Competence- vs. Integrity-Based Trust Violation.

This study examined the effect of verbal and written apologies on trust repair based on competence and integrity after a trust violation. Through three experiments, the empirical results showed that the written apology was more effective than verbal ones a restoring trust for integrity-based trust violations. However, the verbal apology was more effective against competency-based trust violations than a written one. Moreover, the results also showed that perceived trustworthiness played a mediating role between trust violation and trust repair, while positive emotions played a moderating role. Finally, this study provided a general discussion, implications, and suggestions for future research.

Trust Development in Military and Civilian Human-Agent Teams: The Effect of Social-Cognitive Recovery Strategies.

Autonomous agents (AA) will increasingly be deployed as teammates instead of tools. In many operational situations, flawless performance from AA cannot be guaranteed. This may lead to a breach in the human's trust, which can compromise collaboration. This highlights the importance of thinking about how to deal with error and trust violations when designing AA. The aim of this study was to explore the influence of uncertainty communication and apology on the development of trust in a Human-Agent Team (HAT) when there is a trust violation. Two experimental studies following the same method were performed with (I) a civilian group and (II) a military group of participants. The online task environment resembled a house search in which the participant was accompanied and advised by an AA as their artificial team member. Halfway during the task, an incorrect advice evoked a trust violation. Uncertainty communication was manipulated within-subjects, apology between-subjects. Our results showed that (a) communicating uncertainty led to higher levels of trust in both studies, (b) an incorrect advice by the agent led to a less severe decline in trust when that advice included a measure of uncertainty, and (c) after a trust violation, trust recovered significantly more when the agent offered an apology. The two latter effects were only found in the civilian study. We conclude that tailored agent communication is a key factor in minimizing trust reduction in face of agent failure to maintain effective long-term relationships in HATs. The difference in findings between participant groups emphasizes the importance of considering the (organizational) culture when designing artificial team members.

Repairing Charity Trust in Times of Accidental Crisis: The Role of Crisis History and Crisis Response Strategy.

PURPOSE: Since it is practically significant to explore how to repair the public's trust in charities during accidental crisis, this study explored the crisis response strategies that charitable organizations with and without crisis histories could adopt when facing a current accidental crisis. PARTICIPANTS AND METHODS: Study 1 (N = 177) used a 2 × 2 between-subjects design to examine the effects of crisis history (no crisis history vs. crisis history) and crisis response strategies (diminish vs. rebuild) on charity trust repair during an accidental crisis. Study 2 adopting a 3 × 2 between-subjects design examined the effects of crisis history (victim crisis history vs. accidental crisis history vs. preventable crisis history) and crisis response strategies (diminish vs. rebuild) on charity trust repair during an accidental crisis. RESULTS: The results of Study 1 showed that the diminish strategy adopted by charities in an accidental crisis can enhance public trust. However, if the charity has a crisis history, the rebuild strategy will enhance public trust. The results of Study 2 showed that, under the victim crisis history condition, participants' charity trust was borderline significantly higher than their pre-test charity trust when the diminish strategy was used. However, rebuild strategies did not significantly increase trust. Under the accidental crisis history condition, diminish strategies improved trust after the accidental crisis, while rebuild strategies did not. Under the preventable crisis history condition, diminish strategies did not improve trust after an accidental crisis, while rebuild strategies did. CONCLUSION: Charities should adopt a diminish strategy when experiencing their first accidental crisis. Charities with a victim or accidental crisis history should adopt a diminish strategy when facing a current accidental crisis. However, if a charity has a preventable crisis history, rebuild strategies are the most appropriate response to a current accidental crisis.

Food Safety Trust, Risk Perception, and Consumers' Response to Company Trust Repair Actions in Food Recall Crises.

Food recalls have severe impacts on the operation, reputation, and even the survival of a recalling company involved in a crisis, with consumer trust violation being the immediate threat to the recalling firm. The involved firms adopt trust repair strategies and release messages relevant to these actions to the public. In this research, we developed a conceptual model to analyze consumers' general responses to the food recall, and we then compared the effect of two types of consumer trust repair strategies, i.e., self-sanction and information-sharing. The results show that consumer food safety trust has negative impacts on consumers' protective behavioral intention during a food recall crisis. In the scientific-evidence sharing group, consumers have a higher risk perception, coping appraisal efficacy, information-seeking tendency, and protection behavioral intention. However, consumers' food safety trust fails to predict protection behavioral intention because scientific-evidence actions can either be regarded as an explanation and self-serving, or as useful facts and solutions. Self-sanction actions overcome the disadvantages of information-sharing actions, but consumers still require information on facts of and solutions to the crisis. Therefore, it is recommended that recalling firms combine these two strategies in the case of consumer trust repair in food recall crises. Furthermore, the involved firms are encouraged to employ a third party to release the scientific evidence.

Denial and Empathy: Partners in Employee Trust Repair?

Prior research on trust repair has focused primarily on investigating verbal responses to breaches of trust. Although consistently implicated in violations, the role of affect in the repair process has been mostly ignored. Using a scenario-based paradigm, we conducted an experimental study to examine the value of mistrusted party's empathy, specific responses to an integrity-based violation (apology vs. denial), and nature of consequences (personal vs. organizational), as well as their interactive effects, on trust repair. Consequently, we sought to merge work on verbal responses with affect. Major findings indicated that presence of mistrusted party's empathy functioned to repair trust better than its absence and, when coupled with a denial of culpability, produced markedly increased perceptions of violator's integrity. These findings contribute to our understanding of how leaders influence followers through affect, informing both emotion and trust theory.

From 'automation' to 'autonomy': the importance of trust repair in human-machine interaction.

Modern interactions with technology are increasingly moving away from simple human use of computers as tools to the establishment of human relationships with autonomous entities that carry out actions on our behalf. In a recent commentary, Peter Hancock issued a stark warning to the field of human factors that attention must be focused on the appropriate design of a new class of technology: highly autonomous systems. In this article, we heed the warning and propose a human-centred approach directly aimed at ensuring that future human-autonomy interactions remain focused on the user's needs and preferences. By adapting literature from industrial psychology, we propose a framework to infuse a unique human-like ability, building and actively repairing trust, into autonomous systems. We conclude by proposing a model to guide the design of future autonomy and a research agenda to explore current challenges in repairing trust between humans and autonomous systems. Practitioner Summary: This paper is a call to practitioners to re-cast our connection to technology as akin to a relationship between two humans rather than between a human and their tools. To that end, designing autonomy with trust repair abilities will ensure future technology maintains and repairs relationships with their human partners.

More Money, More Trust? Target and Observer Differences in the Effectiveness of Financial Overcompensation to Restore Trust.

Recent research revealed that despite its financial costs, overcompensation is not more effective to restore trust in the perpetrator than equal compensation. In a lab experiment (N = 115), we compared the effects of these compensation sizes for both targets of the compensation and non-involved observers. It was revealed that overcompensation did not yield superior outcomes than equal compensation. Specifically, for targets overcompensation resulted in lower levels of trust than equal compensation, while for observers equal compensation and overcompensation resulted in similar levels of trust. This finding suggests that overcompensation is not a cost-effective trust repair strategy, neither for the targets nor for third party observers. Other implications are discussed as well.