Revealing the material basis and mechanism for the inhibition of intestinal peristalsis by Zingiber officinale Roscoe through integrated metabolomics, serum pharmacochemistry, and network pharmacology.

Abnormal relaxation and contraction of intestinal smooth muscle can cause various intestinal diseases. Diarrhea is a common and important public health problem worldwide in epidemiology. Zingiber officinale Roscoe (fresh ginger) has been found to treat diarrhea, but the material basis and mechanism of action that inhibits intestinal peristalsis remain unclear. Metabolomics and serum pharmacology were used to identify differential metabolites, metabolic pathways, and pharmacodynamic substances, and were then combined with network pharmacology to explore the potential targets of ginger that inhibit intestinal peristalsis during diarrhea treatment, and the targets identified were verified using molecular docking and molecular dynamic simulation. We found that 25 active components of ginger (the six most relevant components), 35 potential key targets (three core targets), 40 differential metabolites (four key metabolites), and four major metabolic pathways were involved in the process by which ginger inhibits intestinal peristalsis during diarrhea treatment. This study reveals the complex mechanism of action and pharmacodynamic material basis of ginger in the inhibition of intestinal peristalsis, and this information helps in the development of new Chinese medicine to treat diarrhea and lays the foundation for the clinical application of ginger.

Ameliorative Effects of Zingiber officinale Rosc on Antibiotic-Associated Diarrhea and Improvement in Intestinal Function.

The global increase in antibiotic consumption is related to increased adverse effects, such as antibiotic-associated diarrhea (AAD). This study investigated the chemical properties of Zingiber officinale Rosc (ZO) extract and its ameliorative effects using a lincomycin-induced AAD mouse model. Intestinal tissues were evaluated for the expression of lysozyme, claudin-1, and α-defensin-1, which are associated with intestinal homeostasis. The cecum was analyzed to assess the concentration of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs). The chemical properties analysis of ZO extracts revealed the levels of total neutral sugars, acidic sugars, proteins, and polyphenols to be 86.4%, 8.8%, 4.0%, and 0.8%, respectively. Furthermore, the monosaccharide composition of ZO was determined to include glucose (97.3%) and galactose (2.7%). ZO extract administration ameliorated the impact of AAD and associated weight loss, and water intake also returned to normal. Moreover, treatment with ZO extract restored the expression levels of lysozyme, α-defensin-1, and claudin-1 to normal levels. The decreased SCFA levels due to induced AAD showed a return to normal levels. The results indicate that ZO extract improved AAD, strengthened the intestinal barrier, and normalized SCFA levels, showing that ZO extract possesses intestinal-function strengthening effects.

Dimeric diarylheptanoids with anti-inflammatory activity from Zingiber officinale.

Two previously undescribed chain diarylheptanoid derivatives (2-3), five previously undescribed dimeric diarylheptanoids (4-8), together with one known cyclic diarylheptanoid (1) were isolated from Zingiber officinale. Their structures were elucidated by extensive spectroscopic analyses (HR-ESI-MS, IR, UV, 1D and 2D NMR) and ECD calculations. Biological evaluation of compounds 1-8 revealed that compounds 2, 3 and 4 could inhibit nitrite oxide and IL-6 production in lipopolysaccharide induced RAW264.7 cells in a dose-dependent manner.

Ginger beer derived from back-slopping: Volatile compounds, microbial communities on activation and fermentation, metabolites and sensory characteristics.

Physicochemical parameters, microbial diversity using sequencing and amplicon, and metabolite concentrations from Ginger Bug and Ginger Beer were characterized. Furthermore, the sensory aspects of the beverage were determined. The longer ginger bug activation time (96 h) resulted in higher production of organic acids and alcohols, increased phenolic and volatile compounds concentration, greater microbial diversity, and increased lactic acid bacteria and yeasts. In the same way, the longer fermentation time (14 days) of ginger beer resulted in higher ethanol content, volatile compounds, and phenolic compounds, in addition to better sensory characteristics. Our results showed that ginger beer produced with ginger bug and fermented for 14 days showed better volatile and phenolic compound profiles, physicochemical parameters, microbial diversity, and sensory characteristics.

Elucidating the Pharmacological Properties of Zingiber officinale Roscoe (Ginger) on Muscle Ageing by Untargeted Metabolomic Profiling of Human Myoblasts.

(1) Background: Muscle loss is associated with frailty and a reduction in physical strength and performance, which is caused by increased oxidative stress. Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) is a potential herb that can be used to reduce the level of oxidative stress. This study aimed to determine the effect of ginger on the expression of metabolites and their metabolic pathways in the myoblast cells to elucidate the mechanism involved and its pharmacological properties in promoting myoblast differentiation. (2) Methods: The myoblast cells were cultured into three stages (young, pre-senescent and senescent). At each stage, the myoblasts were treated with different concentrations of ginger extract. Then, metabolomic analysis was performed using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LCMS/MS). (3) Results: Nine metabolites were decreased in both the pre-senescent and senescent control groups as compared to the young control group. For the young ginger-treated group, 8-shogaol and valine were upregulated, whereas adipic acid and bis (4-ethyl benzylidene) sorbitol were decreased. In the pre-senescent ginger-treated group, the niacinamide was upregulated, while carnitine and creatine were downregulated. Ginger treatment in the senescent group caused a significant upregulation in 8-shogaol, octadecanamide and uracil. (4) Conclusions: Ginger extract has the potential as a pharmacological agent to reduce muscle loss in skeletal muscle by triggering changes in some metabolites and their pathways that could promote muscle regeneration in ageing.

Impact of inoculum density of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. zingiberi on symptomatic appearances and yield of ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe).

Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) is an important horticultural crop valued for its medicinal and culinary properties. Fusarium yellows, caused by the ascomycete fungus Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. zingiberi (Foz), is a devastating soil-borne disease of ginger. It has curtailed ginger production in Australia and around the world, leading to significant economic losses. An integrated approach is required to manage soil-borne diseases such as those caused by Foz. However, little is known about the influence of Foz inoculum on disease severity. This study aimed to establish a minimum threshold level of spores per gram of soil required for plant infection and to develop and evaluate a pot inoculation method for screening large numbers of plants in a controlled environment. To achieve this, the dominant Australian ginger cultivar Canton was inoculated with 101, 103, 105, 106 and 107 microconidia g-1 soil. The inoculum density was positively associated with leaf and stem yellows, and rhizome discolouration, and negatively associated with root length and rhizome weight. The lowest threshold required for plant infection was 101 microconidia g-1 soil, which may provide an important basis for outbreaks of Foz in the field. This finding adds significantly to our knowledge of the impact of soil health on ginger production, thereby contributing to the integrated management of Foz. When used at a high dose, this method can facilitate reliable and accurate screening of Foz-susceptible ginger genotypes in a controlled environment.

Renoprotective Glycoside Derivatives from Zingiber officinale (Ginger) Peels.

As a widely consumed spice and traditional Chinese medicine, Zingiber officinale Roscoe (ginger) has been used in the treatment of nausea, coughs, and colds. In this article, 18 new glycosides (1-18) and six known analogues (19-24) were isolated from the peel of ginger. The planar structures of these compounds were determined by using HR-ESI-MS and extensive spectroscopic techniques (UV, IR, 1D-NMR, and 2D-NMR). Their relative and absolute configurations of the stereogenic centers in the new natural products were determined by analysis of NMR data, using a quantum mechanical NMR approach and time-dependent density functional theory based electronic circular dichroism calculations. The renal fibrosis activities of the isolated natural products together with those of 6-gingerol (6-Gi), 8-gingerol (8-Gi), and 10-gingerol (10-Gi) were evaluated in TGF-ß1 induced NRK-52E cells. Compounds 9, 10, 15, 22-24, 6-Gi, 8-Gi, and 10-Gi were found to be active toward extracellular matrix, indicating that they have potential renal fibrosis activities.

Suppression of Inflamm-Aging by Moringa oleifera and Zingiber officinale Roscoe in the Prevention of Degenerative Diseases: A Review of Current Evidence.

Inflammation or inflamm-aging is a chronic low-grade inflammation that contributes to numerous types of degenerative diseases among the elderly and might be impeded by introducing an anti-inflammatory agent like Moringa oleifera Lam (moringa) and Zingiber officinale Roscoe (ginger). Therefore, this paper aims to review the role of moringa and ginger in suppressing inflamm-aging to prevent degenerative diseases. Various peer-reviewed publications were searched and downloaded using the reputed search engine "Pubmed" and "Google Scholar". These materials were reviewed and tabulated. A comparison between these previous findings was made based on the mechanism of action of moringa and ginger against degenerative diseases, focusing on their anti-inflammatory properties. Many studies have reported the efficacy of moringa and ginger in type 2 diabetes mellitus, neurodegenerative disease, cardiovascular disease, cancer, and kidney disease by reducing inflammatory cytokines activities, mainly of TNF-α and IL-6. They also enhanced the activity of antioxidant enzymes, including catalase, glutathione, and superoxide dismutase. The anti-inflammatory activities can be seen by inhibiting NF-κß activity. Thus, the anti-inflammatory potential of moringa and ginger in various types of degenerative diseases due to inflamm-aging has been shown in many recent types of research.

Zingiber officinale Roscoe (Ginger) and its Bioactive Compounds in Diabetes: A Systematic Review of Clinical Studies and Insight of Mechanism of Action

Background: Zingiber officinale Roscoe (Ginger) belongs to the Zingiberaceae family, which is renowned for its rich nutritional and phytochemical composition, and has been validated for its anti-diabetic and anti-inflammatory properties via in vitro, in vivo, and clinical studies. Nonetheless, a comprehensive review of these pharmacological studies, especially clinical studies, together with an analysis of the mechanism of action of the bioactive compounds is still lacking. This review provided a comprehensive and updated analysis of the anti-diabetic efficacy of Z. officinale and its compounds ginger enone, gingerol, paradol, shogaol, and zingerone. Methods: The present systematic review was conducted using the PRISMA guidelines. Scopus, ScienceDirect, Google Scholar, and PubMed were the main databases used for retrieving information from inception to March 2022. Results: From the findings obtained, Z. officinale can be regarded as a therapeutic species showing significant improvement in clinical studies on glycemic parameters (Fasting blood glucose (FBG), hemoglobin A1C (HbA1c), and insulin resistance). In addition, the bioactive compounds of Z. officinale act via several mechanisms as revealed by in vitro and in vivo studies. Overall, these mechanisms were by increasing glucose-stimulated insulin secretion, sensitising insulin receptors and raising glucose uptake, translocation of GLUT4, inhibition of advanced glycation end product-induced increase of reactive oxygen species, regulation of hepatic gene expression of enzymes associated with glucose metabolism, regulation of the level of pro-inflammatory cytokines, amelioration of the pathological injuries of kidneys, protective effect on the morphology of ß-cells as well as its antioxidant mechanisms, among others. Conclusion: Z. officinale and its bioactive compounds displayed promising results in in vitro and in vivo systems, nevertheless, it is highly recommended that human trials be conducted on these compounds since clinical studies are the core of medical research and considered the final stages of the drug development process.

Extraction, Purification, Structural Characteristics, Biological Activities, and Applications of the Polysaccharides from Zingiber officinale Roscoe. (Ginger): A Review.

Zingiber officinale Roscoe. (ginger) is a widely distributed plant with a long history of cultivation and consumption. Ginger can be used as a spice, condiment, food, nutrition, and as an herb. Significantly, the polysaccharides extracted from ginger show surprising and satisfactory biological activity, which explains the various benefits of ginger on human health, including anti-influenza, anti-colitis, anti-tussive, anti-oxidant, anti-tumor effects. Here, we systematically review the major studies on the extraction and purification of polysaccharides from ginger in recent years, the characterization of their chemical structure, biological activity, and structure-activity relationships, and the applications of ginger polysaccharides in different fields. This article will update and deepen the understanding of ginger polysaccharide and provide a theoretical basis for its further research and application in human health and product development.

Antioxidant Activity in Extracts from Zingiberaceae Family: Cardamom, Turmeric, and Ginger.

An increase in life expectancy leads to a greater impact of chronic non-communicable diseases. This is even more remarkable in elder populations, to whom these become main determinants of health status, affecting mental and physical health, quality of life, and autonomy. Disease appearance is closely related to the levels of cellular oxidation, pointing out the importance of including foods in one's diet that can prevent oxidative stress. Previous studies and clinical data suggest that some plant-based products can slow and reduce the cellular degradation associated with aging and age-related diseases. Many plants from one family present several applications that range from the food to the pharmaceutical industry due to their characteristic flavor and scents. The Zingiberaceae family, which includes cardamom, turmeric, and ginger, has bioactive compounds with antioxidant activities. They also have anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anticancer, and antiemetic activities and properties that help prevent cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases. These products are abundant sources of chemical substances, such as alkaloids, carbohydrates, proteins, phenolic acids, flavonoids, and diarylheptanoids. The main bioactive compounds found in this family (cardamom, turmeric, and ginger) are 1,8-cineole, α-terpinyl acetate, ß-turmerone, and α-zingiberene. The present review gathers evidence surrounding the effects of dietary intake of extracts of the Zingiberaceae family and their underlying mechanisms of action. These extracts could be an adjuvant treatment for oxidative-stress-related pathologies. However, the bioavailability of these compounds needs to be optimized, and further research is needed to determine appropriate concentrations and their antioxidant effects in the body.

Synergistic apoptotic effects of ethanolic extracts of ginger and Ganoderma lucidum in a colorectal cancer cell line.

Current conventional therapy for colorectal cancer includes surgery, radiation and chemotherapy, all of which produce side effects. Herbal medicine can control the side effects of conventional treatments. We investigated the synergistic effect of a mixture of Zingiber officinale Roscoe (Ginger) and Ganoderma lucidum extracts on colorectal cancer cell apoptosis in vitro. We prepared ethanolic extracts of ginger (GEE) and G. lucidum (GLEE). Cytotoxicity was evaluated using MTT assay and the half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) of each extract was calculated. The effect of these extracts on apoptosis in cancer cells was assessed using flow cytometry; Bax, Bcl2 and caspase-3 gene expression was evaluated using real-time PCR. GEE and GLEE decreased CT-26 cell viability significantly in a dose-dependent manner; however, the combined application of GEE + GLEE was most effective. Bax:Bcl-2 gene expression ratio, caspase-3 gene expression and the number of apoptotic cells were increased significantly in CT-26 cells treated at the IC50 level of each compound, especially in the GEE + GLEE treatment group. Combined ginger and Ganoderma lucidum extracts exhibited synergistic antiproliferative and apoptotic effects on colorectal cancer cells.

A subcritical water extract of soil grown Zingiber officinale Roscoe: Comparative analysis of antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects and evaluation of bioactive metabolites.

Introduction: Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) can scavenge free radicals, which cause oxidative damage and inflamm-ageing. This study aimed to evaluate the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of soil ginger's sub-critical water extracts (SWE) on different ages of Sprague Dawley (SD) rats. The antioxidant properties and yield of SWE of soil- and soilless-grown ginger (soil ginger and soilless ginger will be used throughout the passage) were compared and evaluated. Methods: Three (young), nine (adult), and twenty-one (old) months old SD rats were subjected to oral gavage treatments with either distilled water or the SWE of soil ginger at a concentration of 200 mg/kg body weight (BW) for three months. Results: Soil ginger was found to yield 46% more extract than soilless ginger. While [6]-shogaol was more prevalent in soilless ginger, and [6]-gingerol concentration was higher in soil ginger (p < 0.05). Interestingly, soil ginger exhibited higher antioxidant activities than soilless ginger by using 2,2-diphenyl-1-(2,4,6-trinitrophenyl) hydrazyl (DPPH) and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assay. With ginger treatment, a reduced levels of tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and C-reactive protein (CRP) but not interleukin-6 (IL-6) were observed in young rats. In all ages of SD rats, ginger treatment boosted catalase activity while lowering malondialdehyde (MDA). Reduction of urine 15-isoprostane F2t in young rats, creatine kinase-MM (CK-MM) in adult and old rats and lipid peroxidation (LPO) in young and adult rats were also observed. Discussion: The findings confirmed that the SWE of both soil and soilless grown ginger possessed antioxidant activities. Soil ginger produced a higher yield of extracts with a more prominent antioxidant activity. The SWE of soil ginger treatment on the different ages of SD rats ameliorates oxidative stress and inflammation responses. This could serve as the basis for developing a nutraceutical that can be used as a therapeutic intervention for ageing-related diseases.

Zingiberene, a non-zinc-binding class I HDAC inhibitor: A novel strategy for the management of neuropathic pain.

BACKGROUND: Even though numerous Histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACi) have been approved for the treatment of different types of cancer, and others are in clinical trials for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, the main problem related to the clinical use of available HDACi is their low isoform selectivity which causes undesirable effects and inevitably limits their therapeutic application. Previously, we demonstrated that a standardized Zingiber officinalis Roscoe rhizome extract (ZOE) reduced neuroinflammation through HDAC1 inhibition in a mice model of neuropathy, and this activity was related to terpenes fraction. HYPOTHESIS/PURPOSE: The aim of this work was to identify the ZOE constituent responsible for the activity on HDAC1 and to study its possible application in trauma-induced neuropathic pain. METHODS: The ability of ZOE and its terpenes fraction (ZTE) to inhibit HDAC and SIRT isoforms activity and protein expression was assessed in vitro. Then, a structure-based virtual screening approach was applied to predict which constituent could be responsible for the activity. In the next step, the activity of selected compound was tested in an in vitro model of neuroinflammation and in an in vivo model of peripheral neuropathy (SNI). RESULTS: ZTE resulted to be more potent than ZOE on HDAC1, 2, and 6 isoforms, while ZOE was more active on HDAC8. Zingiberene (ZNG) was found to be the most promising HDAC1 inhibitor, with an IC50 of 2.3 ± 0.1 µM. A non-zinc-binding mechanism of inhibition was proposed based on molecular docking. Moreover, the oral administration of ZNG reduced thermal hyperalgesia and mechanical allodynia in animals with neuropathy after 60 min from administration, and decreased HDAC-1 levels in the spinal cord microglia. CONCLUSION: We found a new non-zinc-dependent inhibitor of HDAC class I, with a therapeutic application in trauma-related neuropathic pain forms in which microglia-spinal overexpression of HDAC1 occurs. The non-zinc-binding mechanism has the potential to reduce off target effects, leading to a higher selectivity and better safety profile, compared to other HDAC inhibitors.

Two new diterpenoids from the rhizomes of Zingiber officinale.

Two undescribed labdane diterpenoids (5S,8S,9R,10S,11E)-8,17-epoxy-13,14-dinorlabd-11-en-13-one (1) and (5S,9R,10S,12E)-17-hydroxy-labd-7,12-dien-15(16)-olide (2), together with seven known sesquiterpenoids (3-9) and two known monoterpenoids (10-11) were isolated from the dried rhizome of Zingiber officinale. Their structures were elucidated by detailed spectroscopic data (IR, UV, HR-ESI-MS, 1D and 2D NMR), X-ray crystallographic and ECD analysis. Moreover, all the 11 compounds were tested for α-glucosidase inhibitory effects and 9 was found to exhibit stronger inhibitory effects at IC50 = 4.8 µM against a positive control acarbose with IC50 = 414.6 µM.

Insecticidal activity of isolated gingerols and shogaols from Zingiber officinale Roscoe rhizomes against Spodoptera spp. (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae).

The discovery of eco-friendly plant-based insecticides is currently booming in research with an attempt to replace synthetic chemical insecticides causing tremendous adverse effects. The present work studied the insecticidal potential of ginger, an important medicinal plant. Four crude extracts from Zingiber officinale rhizomes were evaluated for their contact toxicity against second instars of Spodoptera litura, Spodoptera exigua and Spodoptera frugiperda using the topical application. The hexane extract exhibited the strongest toxicity to S. exigua with the LD50 of 9.92 and 8.40 µg/larva at 24 and 48 h posttreatment, respectively, followed by S. frugiperda. Comparative toxicity of the most abundant secondary metabolites from the hexane extract, gingerols and shogaols, against both insects concluded that 8-shogaol (5) was identified as the most active compound against S. frugiperda with the LD50 of 7.68 and 3.96 µg/larva at 24 and 48 h posttreatment, respectively.

8-paradol from ginger exacerbates PINK1/Parkin mediated mitophagy to induce apoptosis in human gastric adenocarcinoma.

Gastric cancer (GC) occurs in the gastric mucosa, and its high morbidity and mortality make it an international health crisis. Therefore, novel drugs are needed for its treatment. The use of natural products and their components in cancer treatments has shown promise. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the effect of 8-paradol, a phenolic compound isolated from ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe), on GC and determine its underlying mechanisms of action. In this study, repeated column chromatography was conducted on ginger EtOH extract to isolate gingerol and its derivatives. The cytotoxicity of the eight ginger compounds underwent a (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)- 2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) tetrazolium reduction (MTT) assay. 8-paradol showed the most potent cytotoxicity effect among the isolated ginger compounds. The underlying mechanism by which 8-paradol regulated specific proteins in AGS cells was evaluated by proteomic analysis. To validate the predicted mechanisms, AGS cells and thymus-deficient nude mice bearing AGS xenografts were used as in vitro and in vivo models of GC, respectively. The results showed that the 8-paradol promoted PINK1/Parkin-associated mitophagy, mediating cell apoptosis. Additionally, the inhibition of mitophagy by chloroquine (CQ) ameliorated 8-paradol-induced mitochondrial dysfunction and apoptosis, supporting a causative role for mitophagy in the 8-paradol-induced anticancer effect. Molecular docking results revealed the molecular interactions between 8-paradol and mitophagy-/ apoptosis-related proteins at the atomic level. Our study provides strong evidence that 8-paradol could act as a novel potential therapeutic agent to suppress the progression of GC by targeting mitophagy pathway.

Effect of drying and processing on diterpenes and other chemical constituents of ginger.

Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) is a perennial plant widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions, and its rhizomes are sometimes processed for use in traditional medicine. In Japan, "ginger" (Shokyo in Japanese) and "processed ginger" (Kankyo in Japanese) are defined as crude drugs derived from ginger rhizomes, which have different medicinal properties due to complex changes in their chemical composition during processing. The effects of processing on gingerols and shogaols are well known, but for other phytochemicals remain unclear. Therefore, the present study prepared dried ginger and processed ginger derived from three ginger cultivars (Kintoki, Kogane, and Tosa ginger) and examined the effects of drying and processing on multiple secondary metabolites. Drying showed only a limited effect on ginger chemical constituents and significantly reduced [6]-gingerol content in Tosa ginger. In contrast, processing altered content of numerous metabolites, such as terpenes and gingerol-related compounds, in addition to those gingerols and shogaols. Notably, processing reduced labdane diterpene content, including labdadienedial, aframodial, and galanolactone in all ginger cultivars. Our results show galanolactone with anti-emetic activity was abundant in dried ginger and decreased following processing, highlighting different uses between "ginger" and "processed ginger" in traditional medicine. Overall, we comprehensively clarified the impact of drying and processing on terpenes and gingerol-related compounds. These findings help reveal the varying medicinal properties among crude drugs prepared from Z. officinale.

Chemical fingerprinting, comparative in vitro antioxidant properties, and biochemical effects of ginger and bitterleaf infusion.

Botanicals with remarkable pharmacological properties include Zingiber officinale Roscoe [Zingiberaceae] (ginger) and Gymnanthemum amygdalinum (Delie) Sch. Bip [Asteraceae] (bitterleaf). The plants are frequently used as teas and decoctions, and have been studied in the treatment of various illnesses. Thus, this study investigated the in vitro antioxidant activities and chemical fingerprints of ginger and bitter leaf infusions separately and as a combination. In addition, we assessed the effects of the tea infusions on rat liver and kidney indices. The findings from this study showed that the bitterleaf infusion had the highest phenolic content (21.77 ± 3.140 µg gallic acid equivalent/mg) in comparison with that of ginger (15.17 ± 1.50 µg gallic acid equivalent/mg) and their combination (8.81 ± 0.48 µg gallic acid equivalent/mg). The ginger infusion had the highest flavonoid content (547.15 ± 1.17 µg quercetin equivalent/mg), which was preceded by bitterleaf (473.02 ± 10.48 µg quercetin equivalent/mg) and the ginger and bitterleaf infusion (415.08 ± 4.15 µg quercetin equivalent/mg). Furthermore, our results showed that the tea infusions had no significant effect on the liver function indices (ALT and AST) compared to the control. In contrast, the rat plasma urea significantly increased in the groups given bitterleaf and a combination of ginger and bitterleaf infusions, while creatinine significantly decreased in the group that received the combined form of the infusion. The GC-MS analysis of ginger and bitterleaf infusions revealed that n-hexadecanoic acid, oleic acid, and ergosterol were most abundant in the bitterleaf infusion. At the same time, gingerol, 2-butanone, and 4-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl) were the most abundant in the ginger infusion. Together, the findings are not only evidence in support of the medicinal value of these plants but also reinforce their prospects as nutriceuticals.

The Effect of Ginger and Its Sub-Components on Pain.

Zingiber officinale Roscoe (ginger) has long been used as an herbal medicine to treat various diseases, and its main sub-components, [6]-gingerol and [6]-shogaol, were also reported to have anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, and anti-tumor effects. However, their effects on various types of pain and their underlying mechanisms of action have not been clearly analyzed and understood yet. Thus, in this review, by analyzing 16 studies that used Z. officinale, [6]-gingerol, and [6]-shogaol on mechanical, spontaneous and thermal pain, their effects and mechanisms of action have been analyzed. Pain was induced by either nerve injury or chemical injections in rodents. Nine studies analyzed the analgesic effect of Z. officinale, and four and three studies focused on [6]-gingerol and [6]-shogaol, respectively. Seven papers have demonstrated the underlying mechanism of action of their analgesic effects. Studies have focused on the spinal cord and one on the dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons. Involvement and change in the function of serotonergic receptors (5-HT1A, B, D, and 5A), transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1), N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors, phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (pERK1/2), histone deacetylase 1 (HDAC1), voltage-gated sodium channel 1.8 (Nav1.8), substance P (SP), and sciatic nerve's morphology have been observed.