From brain cytoarchitectonics to clinical neurology: Polish Institute for Brain Research in Vilnius, 1931-1938.

The Polish Institute for Brain Research was established in Warsaw in 1928 to support scientific research on the brain and its functions. The director of the institute was Maksymilian Rose (1883-1937), a distinguished Polish neurologist and neuroanatomist, a disciple of Oskar Vogt and Korbinian Brodmann. In 1931, the Institute was moved from Warsaw to Vilnius. The Institute was well-known in Europe at the time because of the research in the fields of neuroscience, clinical neurology, and psychiatry, as well as the cytoarchitectonic analysis of social activists' brains-a fashionable, neophrenological way to link the mental functions of deceased geniuses with the cellular composition of their central nervous systems. In 1939, the work of the Institute was interrupted by World War II; some of the preparations and materials were moved from Vilnius to Warsaw, some were stored in Vilnius, and some were lost. In this article, we analyze the primary and secondary sources, some of which were obscure for over 80 years, and evaluate the most important scientific achievements of the Polish Institute for Brain Research, as well as its legacy in the early period of modern neuroscience and neurology in interwar Vilnius.

Fractal Geometry Meets Computational Intelligence: Future Perspectives.

Characterizations in terms of fractals are typically employed for systems with complex and multiscale descriptions. A prominent example of such systems is provided by the human brain, which can be idealized as a complex dynamical system made of many interacting subunits. The human brain can be modeled in terms of observable variables together with their spatio-temporal-functional relations. Computational intelligence is a research field bridging many nature-inspired computational methods, such as artificial neural networks, fuzzy systems, and evolutionary and swarm intelligence optimization techniques. Typical problems faced by means of computational intelligence methods include those of recognition, such as classification and prediction. Although historically conceived to operate in some vector space, such methods have been recently extended to the so-called nongeometric spaces, considering labeled graphs as the most general example of such patterns. Here, we suggest that fractal analysis and computational intelligence methods can be exploited together in neuroscience research. Fractal characterizations can be used to (i) assess scale-invariant properties and (ii) offer numeric, feature-based representations to complement the usually more complex pattern structures encountered in neurosciences. Computational intelligence methods could be used to exploit such fractal characterizations, considering also the possibility to perform data-driven analysis of nongeometric input spaces, therby overcoming the intrinsic limits related to Euclidean geometry.

Recommended implementation of quantitative susceptibility mapping for clinical research in the brain: A consensus of the ISMRM electro-magnetic tissue properties study group.

This article provides recommendations for implementing QSM for clinical brain research. It is a consensus of the International Society of Magnetic Resonance in Medicine, Electro-Magnetic Tissue Properties Study Group. While QSM technical development continues to advance rapidly, the current QSM methods have been demonstrated to be repeatable and reproducible for generating quantitative tissue magnetic susceptibility maps in the brain. However, the many QSM approaches available have generated a need in the neuroimaging community for guidelines on implementation. This article outlines considerations and implementation recommendations for QSM data acquisition, processing, analysis, and publication. We recommend that data be acquired using a monopolar 3D multi-echo gradient echo (GRE) sequence and that phase images be saved and exported in Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine (DICOM) format and unwrapped using an exact unwrapping approach. Multi-echo images should be combined before background field removal, and a brain mask created using a brain extraction tool with the incorporation of phase-quality-based masking. Background fields within the brain mask should be removed using a technique based on SHARP or PDF, and the optimization approach to dipole inversion should be employed with a sparsity-based regularization. Susceptibility values should be measured relative to a specified reference, including the common reference region of the whole brain as a region of interest in the analysis. The minimum acquisition and processing details required when reporting QSM results are also provided. These recommendations should facilitate clinical QSM research and promote harmonized data acquisition, analysis, and reporting.

Trends in Brain Research: A Bibliometric Analysis.

BACKGROUND: Bibliometrics methods have allowed researchers to assess the popularity of brain research through the ever-growing number of brain-related research papers. While many topics of brain research have been covered by previous studies, there is no comprehensive overview of the evolution of brain research and its various specialties and funding practices over a long period of time. OBJECTIVE: This paper aims to (1) determine how brain research has evolved over time in terms of number of papers, (2) countries' relative and absolute positioning in terms of papers and impact, and (3) how those various trends vary by area. METHODS: Using a list of validated keywords, we extracted brain-related articles and journals indexed in the Web of Science over the 1991-2020 period, for a total of 2,467,708 papers. We used three indicators to perform: number of papers, specialization, and research impact. RESULTS: Our results show that over the past 30 years, the number of brain-related papers has grown at a faster pace than science in general, with China being at the forefront of this growth. Different patterns of specialization among countries and funders were also underlined. Finally, the NIH, the European Commission, the National Natural Science Foundation of China, the UK Medical Research Council, and the German Research Foundation were found to be among the top funders. CONCLUSION: Despite data-related limitations, our findings provide a large-scope snapshot of the evolution of brain research and its funding, which may be used as a baseline for future studies on these topics.

Strengthening Brain Research in Africa.

This paper explores the emerging field of neuroscience in Africa, considering the unique genetic diversity, socio-cultural determinants, and health inequalities in the continent. It presents numerous brain research initiatives, such as ABDRN, AMARI, APCDR, and H3Africa, aimed at understanding genetic and environmental factors influencing brain disorders in Africa. Despite numerous challenges like the brain drain phenomenon, inadequate infrastructure, and scarce research expertise, significant progress has been achieved. The paper proposes solutions, including international collaboration, capacity-building efforts, and policies to promote neuroscience research, to enhance the understanding of brain function and address brain-related health issues within the African context.

Recommended Implementation of Quantitative Susceptibility Mapping for Clinical Research in The Brain: A Consensus of the ISMRM Electro-Magnetic Tissue Properties Study Group.

This article provides recommendations for implementing quantitative susceptibility mapping (QSM) for clinical brain research. It is a consensus of the ISMRM Electro-Magnetic Tissue Properties Study Group. While QSM technical development continues to advance rapidly, the current QSM methods have been demonstrated to be repeatable and reproducible for generating quantitative tissue magnetic susceptibility maps in the brain. However, the many QSM approaches available give rise to the need in the neuroimaging community for guidelines on implementation. This article describes relevant considerations and provides specific implementation recommendations for all steps in QSM data acquisition, processing, analysis, and presentation in scientific publications. We recommend that data be acquired using a monopolar 3D multi-echo GRE sequence, that phase images be saved and exported in DICOM format and unwrapped using an exact unwrapping approach. Multi-echo images should be combined before background removal, and a brain mask created using a brain extraction tool with the incorporation of phase-quality-based masking. Background fields should be removed within the brain mask using a technique based on SHARP or PDF, and the optimization approach to dipole inversion should be employed with a sparsity-based regularization. Susceptibility values should be measured relative to a specified reference, including the common reference region of whole brain as a region of interest in the analysis, and QSM results should be reported with - as a minimum - the acquisition and processing specifications listed in the last section of the article. These recommendations should facilitate clinical QSM research and lead to increased harmonization in data acquisition, analysis, and reporting.

Policy Analysis for Implementing Neuroethics in Korea's Brain Research Promotion Act.

In 1998, Korea implemented the Brain Research Promotion Act (BRPA), a law to revamp the field of neuroscience at the national level. However, despite numerous revisions including the definition and classification of neuroscience and the national plans for the training and education systems, the governance for neuroethics has not been integrated into the Act. The ethical issues raised by neuroscience and neurotechnology remain unchallenged, especially given the focus on the industrial purpose of the technology. In the current study, we analyzed the BRPA revision process by using Kingdon's Multiple Streams Framework to determine the problems faced by the process. We propose a new strategy, including neuroethics governance and a national committee, to promote interdisciplinary neuroscience research and strengthen neuroethics in Korea.

Neuroscience research in the Max Planck Society and a broken relationship to the past: Some legacies of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society after 1948.

The development of the brain sciences (Hirnforschung) in the Max Planck Society (MPG) during the early decades of the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) was influenced by the legacy of its precursor institution, the Kaiser Wilhelm Society for the Advancement of Science (KWG). The KWG's brain science institutes, along with their intramural psychiatry and neurology research programs, were of considerable interest to the Western Allies and former administrators of the German science and education systems in their plans to rebuild the extra-university research society-first in the British Occupation Zone and later in the American and French Occupation Zones. This formation process occurred under the physicist Max Planck (1858-1947) as acting president, and the MPG was named in his honor when it was formally established in 1948. In comparison to other international developments in the brain sciences, it was neuropathology as well as neurohistology that initially dominated postwar brain research activities in West Germany. In regard to its KWG past, at least four historical factors can be identified that explain the dislocated structural and social features of the MPG during the postwar period: first, the disruption of previously existing interactions between German brain scientists and international colleagues; second, the German educational structures that countered interdisciplinary developments through their structural focus on medical research disciplines during the postwar period; third, the moral misconduct of earlier KWG scientists and scholars during the National Socialism period; and, fourth, the deep rupture that appeared through the forced migration of many Jewish and oppositional neuroscientists who sought to find exile after 1933 in countries where they had already held active collaborations since the 1910s and 1920s. This article examines several trends in the MPG's disrupted relational processes as it sought to grapple with its broken past, beginning with the period of reinauguration of relevant Max Planck Institutes in brain science and culminating with the establishment of the Presidential Research Program on the History of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society in National Socialism in 1997.

On the history of neuroscience research in the Max Planck Society, 1948-2002-German, European, and transatlantic perspectives: Introduction.

To further our understanding of the transformations of the modern, globalized world, historical research concerning the twentieth century must acknowledge the tremendous impact that science and technology exerted and continue to exert on political, economic, military, and social developments. To better comprehend a global history of science, it is also crucial to include Germany's most prominent research organization: The Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science (MPG). Despite the existence of numerous institute chronicles and selected anniversary editions, the overall development of the MPG-historically situated in more than 80 institutes with more than 250 research service departments (of which approximately 50 have reached into the wider field of neuroscience, behavioral science, and cognitive science)-it remains largely terra incognita from a scholarly perspective. From June 2014 to December 2022, the Research Program on the History of the Max Planck Society (GMPG) opened previously neglected vistas on contemporary history, academic politics, and economic developments of the Federal Republic of Germany and its international relations by raising questions such as these: Who were the key scientific actors? In what networks did they work? In what fields had the MPG paved the way for cutting-edge innovations? What were its successes and where did it fail? In what ways were its institutional structures connected to its scientific achievements and its historical legacies? What is specific about the MPG in comparison to other national institutions in and outside of Germany? These questions relate to the emerging interdisciplinary field of the neurosciences. They refer in part to the MPG's founding years-from the late 1940s to the mid-1960s-which faced significant challenges for a "normalization process" in biomedical research and the burgeoning field of neuroscience. This special issue of the Journal of the History of the Neurosciences is composed of an introduction, five articles, and two neuroscience history interviews. It reflects on the multifold dimensions of behavioral psychology, brain research, and cognitive science developments at the MPG since its beginning through the reopening of several former Kaiser Wilhelm Institutes. After World War II, the extra-university research society-named in honor of physicist Max Planck (1858-1947)-was eventually established in the British Occupation Zone in 1946, in the American Zone in 1948, and in 1949 in the French Zone, unifying the MPG as the successor umbrella organization of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institutes (KWIs), now transformed into Max Planck Institutes. Chronologically, the research period covered in this special issue ranges from 1948 to 2002.

Stakeholder engagement in European brain research: Experiences of the Lifebrain consortium.

INTRODUCTION: Stakeholder engagement remains scarce in basic brain research. However, it can greatly improve the relevance of investigations and accelerate the translation of study findings to policy. The Lifebrain consortium investigated risk and protective factors influencing brain health using cognition, lifestyle and imaging data from European cohorts. Stakeholder activities of Lifebrain-organized in a separate work package-included organizing stakeholder events, investigating public perceptions of brain health and dissemination. Here, we describe the experiences of researchers and stakeholders regarding stakeholder engagement in the Lifebrain project. METHODS: Stakeholder engagement in Lifebrain was evaluated through surveys among researchers and stakeholders and stakeholders' feedback at stakeholder events through evaluation forms. Survey data were analysed using a simple content analysis approach, and results from evaluation forms were summarized after reviewing the frequency of responses. RESULTS: Consortium researchers and stakeholders experienced the engagement activities as meaningful and relevant. Researchers highlighted that it made the research and research processes more visible and contributed to new networks, optimized data collection on brain health perceptions and the production of papers and provided insights into stakeholder views. Stakeholders found research activities conducted in the stakeholder engagement work package to be within their field of interest and research results relevant to their work. Researchers identified barriers to stakeholder engagement, including lack of time, difficulties in identifying relevant stakeholders, and challenges in communicating complex scientific issues in lay language and maintaining relationships with stakeholders over time. Stakeholders identified barriers such as lack of budget, limited resources in their organization, time constraints and insufficient communication between researchers and stakeholders. CONCLUSION: Stakeholder engagement in basic brain research can greatly benefit researchers and stakeholders alike. Its success is conditional on dedicated human and financial resources, clear communication, transparent mutual expectations and clear roles and responsibilities. PUBLIC CONTRIBUTION: Patient organizations, research networks, policymakers and members of the general public were involved in engagement and research activities throughout the project duration.

The problematic legacy of victim specimens from the Nazi era: Identifying the persons behind the specimens at the Max Planck Institutes for Brain Research and of Psychiatry.

Although 75 years have passed since the end of World War II, the Max Planck Society (Max-Planck Gesellschaft, MPG), successor to the Kaiser Wilhelm Society (Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft, KWG), still must grapple with how two of its foremost institutes-the KWI of Psychiatry in Munich and the KWI for Brain Research in Berlin-Buch-amassed collections of brains from victims of Nazi crimes, and how these human remains were retained for postwar research. Initial efforts to deal with victim specimens during the 1980s met with denial and, subsequently, rapid disposal in 1989/1990. Despite the decision of the MPG's president to retain documentation for historical purposes, there are gaps in the available sources. This article provides preliminary results of a research program initiated in 2017 (to be completed by October 2023) to provide victim identifications and the circumstances of deaths.

Brain research on Nazi "euthanasia" victims: Legal conflicts surrounding Scientology's instrumentalization of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society's history against the Max Planck Society.

In 1985, historian Götz Aly published an article showing that the director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Brain Research, neuropathologist Julius Hallervorden (1882-1965), had acquired brains of Nazi "euthanasia" victims and brain specimens of at least 33 children gassed at the Brandenburg killing center on October 28, 1940, which were still kept by the Max Planck Institute for Brain Research. Aly criticized that the Max Planck Society had suppressed articles by journalist Hermann Brendel in the 1970s claiming that institutes of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society had conducted brain research within the framework of "euthanasia." New sources show that these articles, which were the subject of a lawsuit, were published in a newspaper called Freiheit run by the German branch of Scientology, of which Brendel was editor-in-chief. The articles were part of Scientology's antipsychiatry campaign. They mixed historical facts about racial hygiene and "euthanasia" in Nazi Germany with ludicrous and unfounded accusations alleging that violent, racist, and dehumanizing research methods typical in Nazi research were still carried out at the Max Planck Institute for Psychiatry. The legal conflict between the Max-Planck-Gesellschaft (MPG) and Scientology about the role of brain researchers in the Nazi era is analyzed here through combining perspectives from the history of neuroscience and socio-legal history. In contrast to trials of Nazi war crimes against "euthanasia" perpetrators, the civil law case of the MPG against Scientology from 1972 until 1975 instead concerned the instrumentalization of the Nazi past of psychiatry and brain research for ideological and commercial motives. The Scientology case caused social and legal ripples, and its after effects extended to 1986, when the MPG considered taking legal steps against Aly's publication.

Neuroscience history interview with Professor Bert Sakmann, Nobel Laureate in Physiology or Medicine (1991), Max Planck Society, Germany.

Dr. Bert Sakmann (b. 1942) studied at the Universities of Tuebingen, Freiburg, Berlin, Paris, and Munich, graduating in 1967. Much of his professional life has been spent in various institutes of the Max Planck Society. In 1971, a British Council Fellowship took him to the Department of Biophysics of University College London to work with Bernard Katz (1911-2003). In 1974, he obtained his Ph.D. from the University of Goettingen and, with Erwin Neher (b. 1944) at the Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, began work that would transform cellular biology and neuroscience, resulting in the 1991 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine. In 2008, Dr. Sakmann returned to Munich, where he headed the research group "Cortical Columns in Silico" at the Max Planck Institute of Neurobiology in Martinsried. Here, their group discovered the cell-type specific sensory activation patterns in different layers of a column in the vibrissal area of rodents' somatosensory cortices.

Neuroscience history interview with Professor Wolf Singer, emeritus director at the Department of Neurophysiology, Max Planck Institute for Brain Research in Frankfurt am Main.

Dr. Wolf Singer (b. 1943) is one of Germany's most renowned brain researchers and neurophysiologists. His accomplishments in the creation of new research centers for neuroscience as well as his commitment to European scientific organizations for integrative brain research are highly valued as significant moments of advancement in the neurosciences. Before his appointment as a scientific member of the Max Planck Society and director at the Frankfurt Max Planck Institute for Brain Research, he gained deep insight into the chances and pitfalls of translational initiatives at the Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry in Munich. From the late 1950s onward, the institute adapted to emerging international trends and successfully integrated neurochemistry, neurophysiology, and neuroanatomy into the fledgling interdisciplinary field of neuroscience. This agenda of reorientation was an undertaking of Otto Detlev Creutzfeldt, Detlev Ploog, Gerd Peters, and Horst Jatzkewitz, among others. In the 1970s, Munich's laboratories attracted scientists from several countries in Europe and abroad. This article examines whether specific styles of conducting (neuro)science research existed in the Max Planck Society.

Artificial intelligence techniques for neuropathological diagnostics and research.

Artificial intelligence (AI) research began in theoretical neurophysiology, and the resulting classical paper on the McCulloch-Pitts mathematical neuron was written in a psychiatry department almost 80 years ago. However, the application of AI in digital neuropathology is still in its infancy. Rapid progress is now being made, which prompted this article. Human brain diseases represent distinct system states that fall outside the normal spectrum. Many differ not only in functional but also in structural terms, and the morphology of abnormal nervous tissue forms the traditional basis of neuropathological disease classifications. However, only a few countries have the medical specialty of neuropathology, and, given the sheer number of newly developed histological tools that can be applied to the study of brain diseases, a tremendous shortage of qualified hands and eyes at the microscope is obvious. Similarly, in neuroanatomy, human observers no longer have the capacity to process the vast amounts of connectomics data. Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that advances in AI technology and, especially, whole-slide image (WSI) analysis will greatly aid neuropathological practice. In this paper, we discuss machine learning (ML) techniques that are important for understanding WSI analysis, such as traditional ML and deep learning, introduce a recently developed neuropathological AI termed PathoFusion, and present thoughts on some of the challenges that must be overcome before the full potential of AI in digital neuropathology can be realized.

Cities and neuroscience research: A systematic literature review.

Background: Cities are becoming the socio-economic hubs for most of the world's population. Understanding how our surroundings can mentally affect everyday life has become crucial to integrate environmental sustainability into urban development. The present review aims to explore the empirical studies investigating neural mechanisms underlying cognitive and emotional processes elicited by the exposure to different urban built and natural spaces. It also tries to identify new research questions and to leverage neurourbanism as a framework to achieve healthier and sustainable cities. Methods: By following the PRISMA framework, we conducted a structured search on PubMed, ProQuest, Web of Science, and Scopus databases. Only articles related to how urban environment-built or natural-affects brain activity through objective measurement (with either imaging or electrophysiological techniques) were considered. Further inclusion criteria were studies on human adult populations, peer-reviewed, and in English language. Results: Sixty-two articles met the inclusion criteria. They were qualitatively assessed and analyzed to determine the main findings and emerging concepts. Overall, the results suggest that urban built exposure (when compared to natural spaces) elicit activations in brain regions or networks strongly related to perceptual, attentional, and (spatial) cognitive demands. The city's-built environment also triggers neural circuits linked to stress and negative affect. Convergence of these findings was observed across neuroscience techniques, and for both laboratory and real-life settings. Additionally, evidence also showed associations between neural social stress processing with urban upbringing or current city living-suggesting a mechanistic link to certain mood and anxiety disorders. Finally, environmental diversity was found to be critical for positive affect and individual well-being. Conclusion: Contemporary human-environment interactions and planetary challenges imply greater understanding of the neurological underpinnings on how the urban space affects cognition and emotion. This review provides scientific evidence that could be applied for policy making on improved urban mental health. Several studies showed that high-quality green or blue spaces, and bio-diverse urban areas, are important allies for positive neural, cognitive, and emotional processes. Nonetheless, the spatial perception in social contexts (e.g., city overcrowding) deserves further attention by urban planners and scientists. The implications of these observations for some theories in environmental psychology and research are discussed. Future work should take advantage of technological advancements to better characterize behavior, brain physiology, and environmental factors and apply them to the remaining complexity of contemporary cities.

Neural stem cell research in Africa: current realities and future prospects.

Neural stem cells (NSCs) are immature progenitor cells that are found in developing and adult brains that have the potential of dividing actively and renewing themselves, with a complex form of gene expression. The generation of new brain cells in adult individuals was initially considered impossible, however, the landmark discovery of human neural stem cells in the hippocampus has been followed by further discoveries in other discreet regions of the brain. Investigation into the current state in Africa of the research and use of NSCs shows relatively limited activities on the continent. Information on the African application of NSCs for modelling disease mechanisms, drug discovery, and therapeutics is still limited. The International Brain Research Organization (IBRO)-African Regional Committee (ARC), with support from the Company of Biologists, and the Movement Disorder Society, sponsored the first African Basic School on NSC in Ibadan, Nigeria, with the vision of bringing together young neuroscientists and physicians across different fields in neuroscience to learn from leaders who have applied NSCs in stem cell research, the pathophysiology of neurodegenerative diseases, neuroanatomy, and neurotherapeutics. Twenty early-career researchers in academic institutions at junior and senior faculty cadres were selected from South Africa, Uganda and Nigeria. The students and organizer of the school, who wrote this review on the state of NSCs research in Africa, recommended the following: (1) other African countries can take a cue from South Africa and Nigeria in probing the phenomena of adult neurogenesis in unique animal species on the continent; (2) Africa should leverage the expertise and facilities of South African scientists and international collaborators in scaling up NSC research into these unique species and (3) Centers of Excellence should be established on the continent to serve as research hubs for training postgraduate students, and facilities for African scientists who trained overseas on NSCs.

A Journey from the Drops of Mercury to the Mysterious Shores of the Brain: The 100-Year Adventure of Voltammetry.

Voltammetry, which is at the core of electroanalytical chemistry, is an analytical method that investigates and evaluates the current-potential relationship obtained at a given working electrode. If it is used dropping mercury as working electrode, the method is called as polarography. The current year 2022 marks the 100th anniversary of the discovery of polarography by Czech Jaroslav Heyrovský. He received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1959 for this discovery and his contribution to the scientific world. A hundred years, within the endless existence of the universe is maybe nothing. A hundred years, in the history of mankind is a line, maybe a short paragraph. But, in science, a hundred years can lead to very significant advances in a field and often to the birth and establishment of an entirely new scientific discipline. Indeed, in the last hundred years, the design and use of new electrochemical devices, depending on the progress in microelectronics and computer technologies, has almost revolutionized voltammetry. Besides these developments, due to the fact that the redox (oxidation/reduction) process is very basic for living organisms; the voltammetry, especially with the beginning of the 21st century, has started to be used as a very powerful tool in neuroscience to solve the mystery of the brain (the basic problems of biomolecules with physiological and genetic importance in brain tissue). This review article is an overview of the 100-year history and fascinating development of voltammetry from Heyrovský to the present.

The Normal Human Adult Hypothalamus Proteomic Landscape: Rise of Neuroproteomics in Biological Psychiatry and Systems Biology.

The human hypothalamus is central to the regulation of neuroendocrine and neurovegetative systems, as well as modulation of chronobiology and behavioral aspects in human health and disease. Surprisingly, a deep proteomic analysis of the normal human hypothalamic proteome has been missing for such an important organ so far. In this study, we delineated the human hypothalamus proteome using a high-resolution mass spectrometry approach which resulted in the identification of 5349 proteins, while a multiple post-translational modification (PTM) search identified 191 additional proteins, which were missed in the first search. A proteogenomic analysis resulted in the discovery of multiple novel protein-coding regions as we identified proteins from noncoding regions (pseudogenes) and proteins translated from short open reading frames that can be missed using the traditional pipeline of prediction of protein-coding genes as a part of genome annotation. We also identified several PTMs of hypothalamic proteins that may be required for normal hypothalamic functions. Moreover, we observed an enrichment of proteins pertaining to autophagy and adult neurogenesis in the proteome data. We believe that the hypothalamic proteome reported herein would help to decipher the molecular basis for the diverse range of physiological functions attributed to it, as well as its role in neurological and psychiatric diseases. Extensive proteomic profiling of the hypothalamic nuclei would further elaborate on the role and functional characterization of several hypothalamus-specific proteins and pathways to inform future research and clinical discoveries in biological psychiatry, neurology, and system biology.