Synthesized alternative reinforcement and resurgence.

In treatments based on differential reinforcement of alternative behavior, applied researchers and clinicians often provide multiple, qualitatively different reinforcers (i.e., synthesized reinforcement) rather than a single reinforcer (i.e., isolated reinforcement) contingent on alternative behavior. Some research shows that providing synthesized reinforcement for alternative responses within such treatments produces more rapid and complete suppression of target behavior; however, there is limited research evaluating the durability of these effects during treatment disruptions. Conceptual explanations of resurgence (e.g., resurgence as choice, context theory) suggest that treatments that include synthesized alternative reinforcement may lead to more resurgence of target behavior when alternative reinforcement is disrupted relative to treatments using isolated reinforcement. We evaluated this hypothesis within a three-phase resurgence evaluation. We exposed rats to isolated or synthesized reinforcement for alternative responding in the second phase, and we exposed rats to extinction in the third phase. Synthesized alternative reinforcement produced more rapid and complete suppression of target behavior than did isolated reinforcement in the second phase; however, exposure to extinction following synthesized reinforcement produced more resurgence. We discuss these results in terms of their implications for applied research and their support for current conceptual explanations for resurgence.

Concurrent schedules of differential reinforcement of alternative behavior in the treatment of problem behavior without extinction.

Differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA) without extinction is an effective intervention for reducing problem behavior maintained by socially mediated reinforcement, particularly when implementing dense schedules of reinforcement for appropriate behavior. Thinning schedules of reinforcement for an alternative response may result in resurgence of problem behavior. Resurgence may be of particular concern in the treatment of problem behavior without extinction because problem behavior that resurges is also likely to encounter reinforcement and thus can be expected to maintain. In the present investigation, we compared the effectiveness of single and concurrent DRA schedules in decreasing the probability of resurgence when problem behavior continues to produce reinforcement throughout all phases of the evaluation. Concurrent DRA schedules reduced or eliminated the likelihood of resurgence compared with a single DRA schedule during a treatment challenge.

Operant ABA renewal during dense and lean schedules of differential reinforcement.

Renewal is a type of relapse that occurs due to a change in context. Previous research has demonstrated that renewal of target responding may occur despite the availability of differential reinforcement for an alternative response (DRA). Nevertheless, the current literature on renewal presents mixed findings regarding the effects of dense and lean schedules of DRA on the magnitude of renewal. We used a translational approach with undergraduate college students and a task on a touchscreen tablet device to study the effects of dense and lean schedules of DRA during repeated renewal tests. All participants experienced two, three-phase ABA renewal arrangements. In the dense and lean renewal arrangements, we differentially reinforced alternative behavior in Context B and the renewal test in Context A on a VI 3-s or a VI 12-s schedule, respectively. Overall, we observed renewal in 31/36 (86%) renewal tests regardless of the density of reinforcement for the alternative response. Furthermore, the results showed that although renewal occurred in both arrangements, we found slightly higher magnitudes of renewal during DRA with lean schedules of reinforcement relative to dense schedules. We discuss the implications of these findings as they relate to the treatment of problem behavior.

Response-strengthening effects of same- and different-context DRA training: The effects of two disruptors.

Differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA) involves placing problem behavior under extinction and simultaneously reinforcing a desirable behavior. Recent research revealed that, as predicted by Behavioral Momentum Theory, DRA may also increase the persistence of the problem behavior. This research has also shown that a different approach to DRA, in which an alternative behavior is trained in a separate context from the target behavior, produces less persistence than the standard procedure. The research on this phenomenon, so far, assessed persistence using extinction as the disruptor. DRA, however, is often implemented under conditions in which extinction of the problem behavior is not feasible. This study evaluated persistence of problem behavior following same- and separate- context DRA training using an alternative disruptor, an additional source of reinforcement. Following a successful reproduction of a previous study of extinction as a disruptor but with domestic hens, this study produced similar findings using an additional source of reinforcement as the disruptor. These findings add to the evidence that alternative DRA arrangements may avoid the response-strengthening effects found with traditional DRA procedures. The findings also demonstrate that disruptors other than extinction can be used to investigate response persistence following DRA and other procedures.

Nominally acceptable integrity failures negatively affect interventions involving intermittent reinforcement.

The finding that differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA) is efficacious at 80% integrity when continuous reinforcement is programmed for alternative responding may have contributed to a perception that integrity at 80% or above is acceptable. However, research also suggests that other interventions (e.g., noncontingent reinforcement) may not remain effective at 80% integrity. The conditions under which 80% integrity is acceptable for common behavioral interventions remains unclear. Therefore, we conducted two human-operant studies to evaluate effects of 80% integrity for interventions with contingent or noncontingent intermittent reinforcement schedules. During Experiment 1, we compared noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) and DRA when implemented with 80% integrity. During Experiment 2, we compared 2 variations of DRA, which included either a ratio or interval schedule to reinforce alternative behavior. Results replicated previous research showing that DRA with a FR-1 schedule programmed for alternative responding resulted in consistent target response suppression, even when integrity was reduced to 80%. In contrast, neither NCR nor interval-based DRA were consistently effective when implemented at 80% integrity. These results demonstrate that 80% integrity is not a uniformly acceptable minimal level of integrity.

Resurgence increases with repetition.

Resurgence refers to a behavioral process in which a recent response is extinguished (or reinforcement conditions worsen) and a previously extinguished response recurs. In previous research, resurgence has been reliably produced when the resurgence procedure is repeated. Changes in the degree of increase of the resurging response across iterations of the procedure have been inconsistent, however, with some studies showing increases and some showing no changes or decreases in resurgence magnitude. The present study examined the nature of resurgence across repeated iterations of the conventional resurgence procedure by exposing four pigeons to the resurgence procedure six times in succession. In the first condition of the resurgence procedure, pecks on one key (e.g., the left) were reinforced under a variable-interval (VI) 30-s schedule. In the second condition pecks on that key were extinguished, and pecks on another key (e.g., the right) were reinforced under the same schedule. In the final condition there were no programmed consequences for either response. Resurgence was observed in 21 of 24 opportunities (87.5%). Iteration-over-iteration increases in resurgence were observed in 15 of 20 opportunities (75.0%), and this increase was found to be statistically significant. These findings demonstrate that, under certain conditions, resurgence generally increases in magnitude with repeated exposure to the procedures that generate it.

The mitigating effects of enhanced reinforcer magnitude and quality on treatment degradation.

Differential reinforcement of alternative behavior is a common intervention for problem behavior in persons with neurodevelopmental disorders, but it is susceptible to integrity errors that can degrade treatment effects. Manipulating reinforcement parameters to favor alternative behavior might make it more persistent in the face of integrity errors. We devised an analog of differential reinforcement of alternative behavior to examine if enhanced reinforcer magnitude or quality for the alternative response could protect against treatment degradation. Across 2 experiments, reinforcer magnitude or quality was manipulated to favor the alternative response in 1 condition but kept constant across both alternative and target responses in a second condition. Comparisons of the 2 conditions indicated that higher-magnitude or higher-quality reinforcement for alternative behavior can mitigate against treatment degradation when treatment errors occur and provided support for the utility of considering parameters of reinforcement when developing behavioral interventions for problem behavior.

On the definition of differential reinforcement of alternative behavior.

Differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA) has a long history as a behavioral treatment. The term has usually been defined in a manner that suggests one form of behavior (usually some appropriate alternative) is reinforced, while another form of behavior (usually problem behavior) is placed on extinction. In this paper, we will suggest that DRA should not require extinction, either procedurally or by definition. Ideally, problem behavior would be placed on extinction when possible; however, when problem behavior is not or cannot be placed on extinction, the procedure used is still DRA. Thus, we propose the following definition: Providing greater reinforcement, along at least one dimension, contingent on the occurrence of one form or type of behavior, while minimizing reinforcement for another form or type of behavior.

Resurgence following differential reinforcement of alternative behavior implemented with and without extinction.

In the clinic, differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA) often involves programming extinction for destructive behavior while reinforcing an alternative form of communication (e.g., a functional communication response); however, implementing extinction can be unsafe or impractical under some circumstances. Quantitative theories of resurgence (i.e., Behavioral Momentum Theory and Resurgence as Choice) predict differences in the efficacy of treatments that do and do not involve extinction of target responding when reinforcement conditions maintaining alternative responding worsen. We tested these predictions by examining resurgence following two DRA conditions in which we equated rates of reinforcement. In DRA without extinction, target and alternative behavior produced reinforcement. In DRA with extinction plus noncontingent reinforcement, only alternative behavior produced reinforcement. We conducted this study in a reverse-translation sequence, first with participants who engaged in destructive behavior (Experiment 1) and then in a laboratory setting with rats (Experiment 2). Across both experiments, we observed proportionally lower levels of target responding during and following the DRA condition that arranged extinction for the target response. However, levels of resurgence were similar following both arrangements.

To What Extent Do Practitioners Need to Treat Stereotypy During Academic Tasks?

Researchers frequently argue that a child's engagement in stereotypy may compete with his ability to acquire academic skills, engage in appropriate social interactions, or both; however, few studies have directly tested these suppositions. We used a five-phase assessment to evaluate the extent to which behavioral interventions with a progressively greater number of components were necessary to decrease stereotypy and increase correct responding during academic instructions for five children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders. For one participant, stereotypy decreased when instructors provided standard instruction without specific intervention for stereotypy. For two participants, stereotypy decreased when instructors provided standard instruction plus antecedent intervention for stereotypy with continuous music. For another participant, stereotypy decreased when instructors provided enhanced consequences for correct responding during standard instruction without either antecedent or consequent intervention for stereotypy. For the final participant, stereotypy decreased and correct responding increased when instructors provided standard instruction and consequent intervention for stereotypy.

Behavioral Interventions for Pediatric Food Refusal Maintain Effectiveness Despite Integrity Degradation: A Preliminary Demonstration.

Food refusal is commonly treated using behavioral treatment packages consisting of differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA) and escape extinction. However, the effectiveness of such behavioral interventions is inextricably linked to the integrity with which the procedures are conducted. Although previous research has evaluated the effects of treatment integrity failures for behavioral interventions related to severe problem behavior and academic skill acquisition, the effects of these failures in the area of pediatric food refusal remain unknown. We conducted a parametric analysis to assess the effects of varying levels of errors on the treatment efficacy of contingent tangibles and attention, and escape extinction. Once stable responding was observed during an initial evaluation of treatment, participants were exposed to sessions of reduced-integrity treatment in descending order (i.e., 80%, 60%, 40%, and 20%) and subsequently exposed to full-integrity treatment (100% integrity). For one participant, integrity errors became detrimental to treatment when the level of integrity was decreased to 40%. For the other two participants, contingent tangibles and attention, and escape extinction remained effective despite being implemented with low integrity. Our preliminary demonstration suggests that behavioral interventions for pediatric food refusal remain effective despite considerable treatment integrity degradation.

Further investigation of differential reinforcement of alternative behavior without extinction for escape-maintained destructive behavior.

Previous research indicates that manipulating dimensions of reinforcement during differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA) for situations in which extinction cannot be implemented is a potential approach for treating destructive behavior. Therefore, we replicated and extended previous research by determining (a) the conditions under which DRA without extinction decreased and maintained low levels of destructive behavior and (b) whether intervention effects maintained during reinforcement schedule thinning for the alternative response (i.e., compliance). Results showed that effective treatments were developed in the absence of extinction by manipulating the quality of reinforcement for compliance for 2 participants and by combining manipulations of the magnitude and quality of reinforcement for compliance for the other 2 participants. However, maintaining treatment effects during reinforcement schedule thinning required combining the magnitude and quality of reinforcement for 3 of the 4 participants. We discuss the clinical utility of this approach, review limitations of the study, and suggest directions for future research.

Resurgence is greater following a return to the training context than remaining in the extinction context.

The present study examined whether resurgence of a previously reinforced target response upon removing alternative reinforcement would be greater when (1) returning to the original training context (ABA context changes) versus (2) remaining in the analogue treatment context in which the alternative response was differentially reinforced (ABB context changes). Experiment 1 arranged reinforcement of button pressing with points exchangeable for money in university students. Experiment 2 arranged reinforcement of lever pressing with food for rats. Experiment 3 arranged reinforcement of responses to a touchscreen with small bites of food with children diagnosed with ASD. Overall, resurgence of target responding tended to be greater when returning to the original training context (A) than when remaining in the analogue treatment context (B). These findings suggest context changes with differential reinforcement treatments could exacerbate the recurrence of problem behavior resulting from reductions in treatment integrity through failure to reinforce appropriate behavior.

Assessing the combined effects of resurgence and reinstatement in children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder.

Resurgence and reinstatement are laboratory models of relapse following treatments for problem behavior that arrange alternative sources of reinforcement, such as differential reinforcement of alternative behavior and noncontingent reinforcement. Resurgence models the elimination or reduction of reinforcers during treatment and reinstatement models the re-presentation of reinforcers previously maintaining problem behavior. The present study examined individual and combined effects of resurgence and reinstatement in a translational model of treatment relapse with three children diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder. We first reinforced and then extinguished an arbitrary response while providing access to a preferred toy to model a version of noncontingent reinforcement with extinction. In the following phases, we examined resurgence by removing the toy, reinstatement by presenting the training reinforcer response-independently, and a combination of resurgence and reinstatement. Overall, relapse of target responding reliably exceeded functionally similar responses never reinforced in the experimental situation. Most importantly, relapse tended to be greater when combining resurgence and reinstatement than when assessing either alone. These findings support previous studies showing that combinations of operations can increase treatment relapse. This translational model arranging simulated problem behavior with arbitrary tasks provides a platform from which to thoroughly and systematically assess methods for understanding and improving behavioral treatments.

Systematic Review of Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior Without Extinction for Individuals With Autism.

The purpose of this article is to review the literature on differential reinforcement of alternative behavior procedures without extinction for individuals with autism. Using predetermined inclusion criteria, a total of 10 studies were included and summarized in terms of the following: (a) participant characteristics (e.g., sex, age, and diagnosis), (b) treatment setting, (c) problem behavior, (d) function, (e) alternative behavior, (f) intervention, (g) outcomes, and (h) conclusiveness of evidence. Of the 10 studies, nine demonstrated positive effects and one mixed effects. Five studies successfully reduced problem behavior by manipulating different reinforcement parameters (magnitude, immediacy, and quality) and four manipulated the schedule of reinforcement. One study had mixed results with two of the three participants requiring extinction. The findings of this review suggest that variations of differential reinforcement of alternative behavior interventions without an extinction component may be considered promising practices for the treatment of challenging behavior in individuals with autism.

Noncontingent reinforcement competes with response performance.

Noncontingent reinforcement is a commonly used procedure to decrease levels of problem behavior. Goals of this intervention are to decrease motivation, responding, and the functional relation between behavior and consequences, but it could also possibly compete with performance of alternative desirable responses. In the current study, we assessed the effects of noncontingent reinforcement arranged from 0% to 100% of sessions on performance of alternative responding across two experiments. Experiment 1 assessed manding (i.e., requests) maintained by attention and tangibles with a child with developmental disabilities and Experiment 2 assessed keypecking maintained by food with six pigeons. We extended previous research by (a) showing that noncontingent reinforcement competes with both the acquisition and maintenance (performance) of an alternative response, (b) extending the generality of the findings across nonhuman and human participants, and (c) eliminating influence of sequence effects through random manipulations of noncontingent value in pigeons. Overall, greater amounts of noncontingent reinforcement competed with both acquisition and maintenance of alternative responding.

Basing assessment and treatment of problem behavior on behavioral momentum theory: Analyses of behavioral persistence.

The connection, or bridge, between applied and basic behavior analysis has been long-established (Hake, 1982; Mace & Critchfield, 2010). In this article, we describe how clinical decisions can be based more directly on behavioral processes and how basing clinical procedures on behavioral processes can lead to improved clinical outcomes. As a case in point, we describe how applied behavior analyses of maintenance, and specifically the long-term maintenance of treatment effects related to problem behavior, can be adjusted and potentially enhanced by basing treatment on Behavioral Momentum Theory. We provide a brief review of the literature including descriptions of two translational studies that proposed changes in how differential reinforcement of alternative behavior treatments are conducted based on Behavioral Momentum Theory. We then describe current clinical examples of how these translations are continuing to impact the definitions, designs, analyses, and treatment procedures used in our clinical practice.

Determinants of choice, and vulnerability and recovery in addiction.

Addiction may be viewed as choice governed by competing contingencies. One factor impacting choice, particularly as it relates to addiction, is sensitivity to delayed rewards. Discounting of delayed rewards influences addiction vulnerability because of competition between relatively immediate gains of drug use, e.g. intoxication, versus relatively remote gains of abstinence, e.g. family stability. Factors modifying delay sensitivity can be modeled in the laboratory. For instance, increased delay sensitivity can be similarly observed in adolescent humans and non-human animals. Similarly, genetic factors influence delay sensitivity in humans and animals. Recovery from addiction may also be viewed as choice behavior. Thus, reinforcing alternative behavior facilitates recovery because reinforcing alternative behavior decreases the frequency of using drugs. How reinforcing alternative behavior influences recovery can also be modeled in the laboratory. For instance, relapse risk decreases as abstinence duration increases, and this decreasing risk can be modeled in animals using choice procedures. In summary, addiction in many respects can be conceptualized as a problem of choice. Animal models of choice disorders stand to increase our understanding of the core processes that establish and maintain addiction and serve as a proving ground for development of novel treatments.

Further evaluation of latency-based brief functional analysis methods: An evaluation of treatment utility.

OBJECTIVE: Objectives were to evaluate latency-based brief functional analysis (BFA) model for identifying functions of aberrant behavior and treatments generated based on the results of the latency-based brief functional analysis. METHODS: We conducted latency-based BFA, including contingency reversals, and function-based treatment evaluations, including non-contingent reinforcement (NCR) and differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA) with three individuals with autism using single subject design methodology. RESULTS: Socially-mediated functions (attention; tangible) were indicated for two participants and an automatic function was identified for one participant. The treatments generated based on results of the BFA were effective at reducing aberrant behavior for all participants. CONCLUSIONS: Results provide additional support that latency-based BFA model has utility in (a) the identification of functions of aberrant behavior and (b) the generation of function-based treatments. These results suggest clinicians who encounter setting and client-specific constraints (e.g. time; severity of aberrant behavior) have additional flexibility in choosing assessment tools.

A component analysis of schedule thinning during functional communication training.

One limitation of functional communication training (FCT) is that individuals may request reinforcement via the functional communication response (FCR) at exceedingly high rates. Multiple schedules with alternating periods of reinforcement and extinction of the FCR combined with gradually lengthening the extinction-component interval can effectively address this limitation. However, the extent to which each of these components contributes to the effectiveness of the overall approach remains uncertain. In the current investigation, we evaluated the first component by comparing rates of the FCR and problem behavior under mixed and multiple schedules and evaluated the second component by rapidly switching from dense mixed and multiple schedules to lean multiple schedules without gradually thinning the density of reinforcement. Results indicated that multiple schedules decreased the overall rate of reinforcement for the FCR and maintained the strength of the FCR and low rates of problem behavior without gradually thinning the reinforcement schedule.