Forensic Anthropology in the identification of human remains found at sea: History of two judicial cases connected by the same marine context of discovery.

Background: Calculating the immersion time at sea of human skeletal remains is a challenge for forensic investigations and the answer to this question would solve many court cases in the shortest possible time. Remains in water create profound structural changes due to countless variables that lead to difficulties in interpretation during investigations. Case report: In this paper, two forensic cases found at sea were analysed, Case A, an extensively skeletonised corpse, and Case B, an isolated, intact foot with soft tissue, both found only 9 km away from the shores of the Tyrrhenian Sea (Southern Italy). A preliminary radiodiagnostic examination was performed for both cases. Subsequently, macroscopic observation of two tattoos found on case A was carried out. Autopsy examination was then carried out with subsequent anthropometric analysis to reconstruct the biological profile of both subjects, (case A) and (case B). Finally, histological and genetic analyses were performed. Conclusions: The examinations carried out made it possible to determine two compatible biological profiles, despite the taphonomic difference, and these examinations were corroborated by the anthropometric and genetic correlation, which led to the solution of a single judicial case. In conclusion, all the investigations carried out made it possible to state that the skeletonised corpse (Case A) and the isolated foot (Case B) belonged to the same individual in life. This result made it possible to identify the victim, thus establishing the profile of an individual who had disappeared in the previous two months due to a shipwreck.

Automatic variable extraction from 3D coxal bone models for sex estimation using the DSP2 method.

Thanks to technical progress and the availability of virtual data, sex estimation methods as part of a biological profile are undergoing an inevitable evolution. Further reductions in subjectivity, but potentially also in measurement errors, can be brought by approaches that automate the extraction of variables. Such automatization also significantly accelerates and facilitates the specialist's work. The aim of this study is (1) to apply a previously proposed algorithm (Kuchar et al. 2021) to automatically extract 10 variables used for the DSP2 sex estimation method, and (2) to test the robustness of the new automatic approach in a current heterogeneous population. For the first aim, we used a sample of 240 3D scans of pelvic bones from the same individuals, which were measured manually for the DSP database. For the second aim a sample of 108 pelvic bones from the New Mexico Decedent Image Database was used. The results showed high agreement between automatic and manual measurements with rTEM below 5% for all dimensions except two. The accuracy of final sex estimates based on all 10 variables was excellent (error rate 0.3%). However, we observed a higher number of undetermined individuals in the Portuguese sample (25% of males) and the New Mexican sample (36.5% of females). In conclusion, the procedure for automatic dimension extraction was successfully applied both to a different type of data and to a heterogeneous population.

Sex estimation using post-mortem computed tomographic images of the clavicle in a Malaysian population.

Forensic practitioners need contemporary anthropological data for the identification of human remains. The clavicle possesses a high degree of variability in its anatomical, biomechanical, and morphological features that are sex-dependent albeit population specific. The aim of this study was to develop sex estimation models for Malaysian individuals using post-mortem computed tomographic images of the clavicle. Sample comprised scans of 2.0 mm resolution of 405 individuals (209 male; 196 female) aged between 19 to 88 years. These scans were reconstructed and visualized using Infinitt. Six clavicular measurements (i.e. maximum length, C1; midshaft circumference, C2; midshaft maximum diameter, C3; midshaft minimum diameter, C4; maximum breadth of the sternal end, C5; and maximum breadth of the acromial articular surface, C6) were obtained from these images. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and discriminant function analysis. Measurements taken from the images were highly precise (ICC = 0.770-0.999). There is a significant difference between all parameters and sex (p < 0.001), however none for age and ethnic group. A multivariate sex estimation model was developed: Sex = (C1*0.86) + (C2*0.236) + (C3*-0.145) + (C5*- 0.074) - 17.618; with an accuracy rate of 89.1 % and sex bias of -3.2 %. Lower accuracy rates were obtained for single variable models (61.5-83.2 %). The resultant sex discriminant models can be used for estimating sex based on the clavicle in our local forensic practice.

The Effect of Cancer and Cancer Treatment on Pubic Symphysis Age Estimation Using Computed Tomography Scans.

It is currently unknown whether cancer and cancer treatment affect age-related skeletal changes used in the biological profile for skeletonized remains. This research examines the effects of cancer on skeletal age estimation using computed tomography (CT) scans of the pubic symphyses for 307 individuals from the New Mexico Descendent Image Database. The Suchey-Brooks method was applied to 125 individuals without documented cancer and 182 individuals with documented cancer. Individuals were correctly aged if their chronological age fell within the original study's 95% prediction range. Though not statistically significant, the results show that females with cancer were aged correctly 74.7% of the time, and females without cancer were aged correctly 85.1% of the time; males with cancer were aged correctly 46.0% of the time, and males without cancer were aged correctly 55.7% of the time. Additionally, a total of 30 individuals were reanalyzed to examine intraobserver error, and a Cohen's kappa value of k = 0.600 indicated a moderate level of agreement. While no statistical differences were found between cancer and control groups, CT scans may lack the resolution needed to visualize the nuanced effects of bone mineral density loss, if present, and the overall quality of bone, despite their proven utility in dry-bone skeletal analyses.

Can human sex be estimated based on the dimensions of the maxillary sinuses? A systematic review of the literature on cone-beam and multi-slice computed tomography.

PURPOSE: To critically appraise and summarize the potential of linear and/or volumetric dimensions of the maxillary sinuses obtained with cone-beam and multi-slice computed tomography. METHODS: A bibliographic search was conducted in seven databases in August 2023. Cross-sectional retrospective studies using linear and volumetric measurements of the maxillary sinuses obtained with cone-beam and multi-slice computed tomography for sex estimation and presenting numerical estimation data were included. Narrative or systematic reviews, letters to the editor, case reports, laboratory studies in animals, and experimental studies were excluded. The critical appraisal and certainty of evidence were assessed using the guidelines described by Fowkes and Fulton and GRADE, respectively. RESULTS: A total of 656 studies were found, 32 of which were included. A total of 3631 individuals were analyzed and the overall sex estimation rate ranged from 54.9 % to 95 %. When compared with isolated measurements, combined linear measurements of the right and left maxillary sinuses, such as width, length, and height, provided a higher rate of sex estimation (54.9-95 %). In most of the studies (62.5 %), all measurements were higher in men than in women. Multiple methodological problems were found in the studies, especially distorting influences in 84.4 % of the answers. The certainty of evidence varied from very low to low. CONCLUSIONS: The combination of height, width, and length measurements of the right and left maxillary sinuses from cone-beam and multi-slice computed tomography can be useful in the estimation of sex of humans. Further primary studies are needed to increase the certainty of evidence. PROSPERO REGISTER: CRD42020161922.

The cost of being qualified: Current barriers faced by graduate students in forensic anthropology.

When considering the best ethical practices in forensic anthropology, one must consider how accessible the field is to new students that are responsible for driving the future of research, pedagogy, and the field as a whole. While there is no denying that there are multiple barriers to accessing academia (e.g., racism, sexism, xenophobia, etc.) the cost of a graduate education is a key factor that affects the diversity of people that are able to enter the field. Here, the cost of 24 universities prominent in the education of forensic anthropologists are considered in tandem with the opportunities for funding offered by these institutions and average costs of living for the respective surrounding areas. Demographic data for the universities at the graduate and undergraduate level was additionally compared with the demographics of the cities surrounding the universities. Funding, excluding loans, was shown to be greatly below cost of living in university cities, and often did not match the costs of attendance estimated by institutions. Including the cost of living, the average graduate degree costs over $60,000 per year while the average stipend for graduate students is below $14,000 necessitating the need for loans or out-of-institute support. White individuals were overrepresented in graduate enrollment when compared with surrounding area demographics, even when university demographics were similar to those of the surrounding area. Overall, findings highlight the inaccessibility of pursuing higher education for minority groups and demonstrate the need for institutions to develop funding programs to promote diversity in higher education.

A global survey of the attitudes and perspectives of cognitive bias in forensic anthropology.

It is now well established that decision making can be susceptible to cognitive bias in a broad range of fields, with forensic science being no exception. Previously published research has revealed a bias blind spot in forensic science where examiners do not recognise bias within their own domain. A survey of 101 forensic anthropology practitioners (n = 52) and students (n = 38) was undertaken to assess their level of awareness of cognitive bias and investigate their attitudes towards cognitive bias within forensic anthropology. The results revealed that the forensic anthropology community (∼90%) had a high level of awareness of cognitive bias. Overall ∼89% expressed concerns about cognitive bias in the broad discipline of forensic science, their own domain of forensic anthropology, and in the evaluative judgments they made in reconstruction activities, identifying a significant reduction in the bias blind spot. However, more than half of the participants believed that bias can be reduced by sheer force of will, and there was a lack of consensus about implementing blinding procedures or context management. These findings highlight the need to investigate empirically the feasibility of proposed mitigating strategies within the workflow of forensic anthropologists and their capabilities for increasing the transparency in decision making.

Optimization and standardization of procedures in Forensic Identification: A methodology for description and coding of tattoos in Mexico.

Tattoos serve as a valuable tool for identification. In the forensic context, it is vital to establish a systematic approach for documenting tattoo-related information to facilitate efficient and fast comparisons, especially in postmortem cases. Despite some countries failing to recognize the potential significance of tattoos, this study presents a methodological framework for gathering comprehensive data on this form of body modification. This article presents the results of an investigation made in Mexico during 2019-2022. The proposed methodology introduces a systematic and distinct classification system tailored to the country in which it will be implemented. The proposal is accompanied by applying the methodology in a Forensic Medical Service (SEMEFO) in Mexico for a week to test its effectiveness and speed under high workloads and stressful conditions. The novelty of this article lies in emphasizing the need for established, replicable, and homologous methodologies for tattoo codification. Additionally, it presents a more in-depth codification, where the details of the tattoos to be classified are thoroughly analyzed.

Hiding the evidence: Preliminary investigation of heat-induced alterations to pre-existing saw mark trauma.

Dismemberment and subsequent burning are common methods employed in an attempt to conceal or destroy evidence. While kerf characteristics can be utilised to identify tool(s) used for dismemberment, further research is necessary to assess the effect of burning on these characteristics. In this study, a back (tenon) saw (13 teeth per inch) was used to manually inflict trauma on Ovis aries de-fleshed femur bones (n = 18). Three different cut marks (shallow false start, incomplete cut and complete transection) were made on the mid-shaft of each bone. Subsequently, the bones were burned for 20 minutes in a muffle furnace. Three burn temperatures were assessed: 400 °C, 600 °C and 800 °C. Saw mark characteristics of each cut type were assessed and compared pre- and post-burning. All pre-existing trauma was recognisable post-burning; however, metric and morphological alterations were apparent. An increase in kerf width was observed at 600 °C in false start lesions and 800 °C in incomplete cuts. Breakaway spur thickness decreased post-burning (at 400 °C and 800 °C) but length was not significantly affected. Mean inter-striation distance decreased post burning at all temperature groups. Saw marks were distinguishable from heat-related fractures across all temperature groups. One false start lesion was obliterated at 800 °C. Exit chipping, pull-out striae as well as striation regularity appeared to be more enhanced after heat exposure. These alterations indicate a temperature-dependent impact on these characteristics. Further research is necessary to assess the role of burn duration.

A proposal for cut marks classification using machine learning: Serrated vs. non-serrated, single vs. double-beveled knives.

In tool mark identification, there is still a lack of characteristics and methodologies standardization used to analyze and describe sharp force trauma marks on skeletal remains. This study presents a classification method for cut marks on human bones, providing an applicable methodology for their examination and the relevant terminology for describing cases of sharp force trauma. A total of 350 cut marks were produced by stabbing pig ribs (Sus scrofa) with seven knives. The samples were analyzed under a stereomicroscope with a tangential light source. Through the analysis of cut marks, eleven traits were identified as significantly associated with the type of knife used. These traits included the general morphology of the kerf shape, the entrance and exit cross-profile shapes, the location of the rising on the entrance and exit cross-profile, the presence or absence of feathering, the presence or absence of shards and the location and the general morphology of the mounding. Binary logistic regression models were later trained and tested using nine out of the eleven traits. The first model categorized the cut mark as either produced by a serrated or non-serrated blade, while the second, as either produced by a single- or double-beveled blade. Classification scores of those models ranged between 63%-85% for the serration class and 63%-89% for the blade bevel class. This study proposes a new set of traits and the use of machine learning models to standardize and facilitate the analysis of stab wounds.

Sex determination by Ct -scan analysis of the mastoid bone: A cross-sectional study.

The mastoid bone, situated at the base of the skull and characterized by its compact structure in the petrous portion, being among the slowest-growing bones, has gained recognition as a valuable anthropological tool for sex determination. Thus, we have proposed to assess the reliability of the mastoid process in sex determination in a Tunisian population using CT-scan analysis. A cross-sectional study was conducted. CT scans forming the mastoid triangle were analyzed using a General Electric Bright Speed scanner. Nine measurements were taken by a single observer, ensuring reliability through intra- and inter-observer assessments. Normalization and statistical analyses, including logistic regression, were applied to identify sex-discriminating variables. The model's performance was evaluated using learning curves, cross-validation, and various metrics. The resulting logistic regression equation, coefficients, and intercept provided a predictive tool for sex determination. A total of 256 cranial CT scans (126 males, 130 females) were analyzed. Our study revealed that the mastoid region approach achieved an overall accuracy of 80.8 % in sex identification within the examined population. The method demonstrated a sensitivity of 78.9 % and specificity of 81.8 %. All investigated variables (AP, PM, AM, CMH, TMH, OSDmax, OCDmax, MA) exhibited discriminatory capabilities for sex determination, except for AIA. Notably, the most effective discriminators were AP, CMH, and OSDmax. Utilizing an ROC curve analysis to optimize mastoid variables for maximum sensitivity and specificity, we obtained excellent results, with an area under the curve reaching 91 %.

Sexual dimorphism of pelvic scarring: A new method of adult biological sex estimation.

Estimating biological sex is a crucial aspect of forensic anthropology, and is pivotal in forensic investigations. Presently, the most frequently adopted osteological sex estimation methods focus on the anterior pelvis, which is easily susceptible to postmortem damage, revealing a need for additional accurate methods. This study introduces a novel method for estimating adult sex through metric pelvic scar analysis, using a known skeletal sample (169 females; 51 males). Relationships between sex and scar dimensions were subjected to Kendall's tau-B testing, and the strongest associated measurements were further analyzed using binary logistic regression to determine their predictive capacity. The final estimation method was tested on an additional known-sex sample of 43 males and 43 females from the Spitalfields skeletal collection. All associations between biological sex and scar measurements were significant, with the preauricular sulcus and newly defined inferior interosseous cavity presenting the strongest relationships (τb 0.223-0.504). Individual regression models using the approximate volume of each feature predicted sex with over 80% accuracy, but when combined in a single regression model, the accuracy increased to an impressive 97.1%. When then applied to the validation sample, the final estimation model achieved an accuracy of 90.7%. These results highlight the high estimation accuracy achieved by simultaneously utilizing the approximate volume of the sulcus and the inferior cavity. This is not only highly accurate but also utilizes the sturdier posterior pelvis, making it a promising tool for forensic investigations and the wider field of osteology.

Towards an integrative approach to the biological profile.

One of the most important tasks in forensic anthropology is the construction of the biological profile, classically defined as a set of four basic biological descriptors: biological sex, age-at-death, ancestry, and stature. Yet, our empirical and technological abilities in reconstructing the life experiences and health from skeletal remains far exceed these four parameters and forensic anthropology could benefit from further descriptors in the search for an identity. In this paper, we propose the inclusion of two other investigations to forensic anthropology practice to implement the already known biological profile: the interpretation of bone disease and lesions, and forensic toxicology on unconventional biological matrices. These analyses can provide information regarding health, habits, and disease burden, and by implementing them in our practice of forensic anthropology, they have the potential to improve the biological profile. We also propose a new term that can include not only the classical biological profile but also further descriptors, namely, the "biocultural profile".

Postmortem or Perimortem Injury? Presentation of an incredible court case in which flames are the protagonists of a murder.

Background: Establishing the cause of death when analysing burnt human remains is limiting due to thermal degradation. The heat generated by high combustion degrades the bone structure, definitively hiding the perimortem trauma in most cases, which is crucial for solving a court case. Case report: In November 2019, a completely burnt corpse was found inside a car set on fire near a location in Reggio Calabria, Italy. The corpse was subsequently subjected to an initial radiodiagnostic examination and an anthropological/medico-legal investigation, in order to confirm the biological profile of the unidentified subject, define the cause of death and assess the presence of perimortal lesions through macroscopic analysis of skull fragments subjected to fleshing. Conclusions: The soft tissue fleshing of the burnt skull fragments allowed the reconstruction of a partial calotte. Macroscopic analysis of the consolidated shell identified in the left fronto-parietal region a clear linear fracture, perimortal in nature, compatible with blunt trauma. Autopsy examination revealed the presence of carbonaceous residues within the larynx and especially the trachea, confirming ante-mortem combustion.The results of the autopsy examination and the anthropological analysis allowed us to state that the net linear fracture, perimortal in nature, caused the subject a complex encephalic trauma, resulting in loss of consciousness and subsequent death due to carbon monoxide inhalation. This result not only confirms the malicious hypothesis, but reveals a deliberate burning of the victim in order to conceal the evidence necessary to solve the forensic case.

Autopsy doesn't always tell all: The importance of exhuming skeletal remains of cemetery unidentified decedents.

The process of personal identification differs according to the state of preservation of the corpse, becoming more complicated when dealing with remains altered by taphonomic variables. Since 2015, the staff of the Laboratory of Forensic Anthropology and Odontology (LABANOF) of the University of Milan has been engaged in recovering the skeletons of 36 unknown people from the cemeteries of the city of Milan, to redraw their biological profiles and give them back the possibility of being identified. Of the 36 starting skeletons, 7 have been identified and therefore are not the object of this study, 25 individuals were previously subjected to an autopsy examination and 4 skeletons were studied for the first time in the present work. The post-mortem data of all the individuals who had previously undergone autopsy and had not yet been identified (n = 25) have been retrieved from the archives of the Institute of Forensic Medicine in Milan and allowed for a comparison with those obtained from the new anthropological study of each exhumed skeleton. The authors aim to present the three most interesting cases to better highlight the results that emerged from the comparison. The autopsy information alone lacked important details. In all cases, the anthropological examination proved to be capable of detailing the biological profile of the unknowns even after a long period of inhumation (even more than 20 years). The limitations of instrumental investigations in achieving the goal single-handedly and the importance of recovering the unknown skeletons from cemeteries for identification purposes are discussed.

Forensic bone age assessment of hand and wrist joint MRI images in Chinese han male adolescents based on deep convolutional neural networks.

In Chinese criminal law, the ages of 12, 14, 16, and 18 years old play a significant role in the determination of criminal responsibility. In this study, we developed an epiphyseal grading system based on magnetic resonance image (MRI) of the hand and wrist for the Chinese Han population and explored the feasibility of employing deep learning techniques for bone age assessment based on MRI of the hand and wrist. This study selected 282 Chinese Han Chinese males aged 6.0-21.0 years old. In the course of our study, we proposed a novel deep learning model for extracting and enhancing MRI hand and wrist bone features to enhance the prediction of target MRI hand and wrist bone age and achieve precise classification of the target MRI and regression of bone age. The evaluation metric for the classification model including precision, specificity, sensitivity, and accuracy, while the evaluation metrics chosen for the regression model are MAE. The epiphyseal grading was used as a supervised method, which effectively solved the problem of unbalanced sample distribution, and the two experts showed strong consistency in the epiphyseal plate grading process. In the classification results, the accuracy in distinguishing between adults and minors was 91.1%, and the lowest accuracy in the three minor classifications (12, 14, and 16 years of age) was 94.6%, 91.1% and 96.4%, respectively. The MAE of the regression results was 1.24 years. In conclusion, the deep learning model proposed enabled the age assessment of hand and wrist bones based on MRI.

Dimensional accuracy of structured light scans and 3D prints of various human skeletal elements.

Three-dimensional (3D) structured light scanning is a beneficial documentation technique in forensic anthropology because such models facilitate continued analysis and data sharing; they can also be 3D printed for demonstrative purposes in legal proceedings and training, without risk of damage to the original skeletal material. As its application in forensic anthropology is relatively novel, the aim of the present study is to statistically evaluate the dimensional accuracy of 3D structured light scans and 3D prints for ten bone types, including the cranium, mandible, 2nd cervical vertebra (C2), clavicle, scapula, capitate, 2nd metacarpal, os coxae, femoral head, and patella. Standard linear measurements are acquired in each physical bone, 3D virtual model, and 3D print of the same bone specimen. Variances between measurements of physical, virtual, and printed bones are quantified using the technical error of measurement (TEM), relative TEM (rTEM), and coefficient of reliability (R). Measurements acquired in the virtual models and prints were found to be within ±2 mm average of the same measurements in the physical bones, with a tendency to underestimate true value. rTEM and R values for the virtual clavicle, capitate, scapula and C2, and rTEM for the printed clavicle and capitate, were comparatively less reliable than for other bone types; although all bones were reproduced to within acceptable anthropological error standards (rTEM≤5 %; R≥0.95). This study reaffirms the use of 3D structured light scanning and 3D printing to complement traditional skeletal documentation in forensic anthropology.

Stature estimation equations for modern American Indians in the American Southwest.

Stature estimation is a core component to the biological profile in forensic anthropology casework. Here we provide mathematical equations for estimating stature for contemporary American Indians (AI), which currently are lacking in forensic anthropology. Drawing on postmortem computed tomography data from the New Mexico Decedent Image Database we regressed cadaveric length on four long bone length measures of the tibia, femur, and humerus to produce 11 combinations of models. Separate regression models were calculated for the entire pooled sample, by sex, broad AI language groups, and age + sex subsamples and compared. Sex-specific models were statistically better than general models, which were more accurate than language group and age + sex models. Equations were created for general and sex-specific models. Application to an independent test sample demonstrates the equations are accurate for stature estimation with overestimates of less than 1 cm. The equations provide similar levels of precision to stature estimation programs like the FORDISC 3.0 module and other stature equations in the literature. We provide recommendations for equation use in casework based on our results. These equations are the first for estimating stature in contemporary AI. This paper demonstrates the appropriateness of these newly created stature equations for use in New Mexico and the surrounding region.

A review of the contributions of forensic archaeology and anthropology to the process of disaster victim identification.

Forensic archaeology and anthropology have developed significantly over past decades and now provide considerable assistance to the investigation process of disaster victim recovery and identification. In what are often chaotic death and crime scenes, the formal process of utilizing archaeological methods can bring control, order, and ensure systematic search. Procedures assist in defining scene extent, locating victims and evidence, rule out areas for consideration, and provide standardized recording and quality assurance through dedicated use of standardized forms (pro formas). Combined archaeological and anthropological search methods maximize opportunities to recovery the missing through identifying remains, mapping distributions, and providing accounting of victims at the scene. Anthropological assistance in examinations contributes to individual assessment, resolving commingling and fragmentation issues, and utilizing DNA sampling methods and matching data to reassociate and account for the missing. Utilization of archaeology, anthropology, and DNA matching data provides scope to review crime scene recovery and determine requirements and potential for further survey and retrieval. Adopting the most suitable methods for a particular context can maximize recovery, efficiency, and resource use. Case studies demonstrate the utility of archaeological methods in a range of scenarios. They exemplify the success of multidisciplinary analysis in providing evidence of the sequence of events, the timing of events, the impact of taphonomic processes, the location and accounting of victims, and the demonstration of systematic scene search. The considerations provided in this article, utilizing archaeology and anthropology processes, may assist investigators in planning and implementing responses to mass fatalities.

Nonmetric sex estimation in a contemporary Indonesian population: a validation study using clinical pelvic MSCT scans.

Klales et al. (2012) is a popular standard for the estimation of skeletal sex. Since its publication, a number of studies have demonstrated that population-specific applications of Klales improve classification accuracy. However, it has also been shown that age appears to affect the expression of dimorphism in the pelvis across the lifespan. As such, the present study examines the accuracy of Klales, and the modified global standard of Kenyhercz et al. (2017), in a contemporary Indonesian population, including quantifying the effect of age. Pelvic multi-slice CT scans of 378 individuals (213 female; 165 male) were analysed in OsiriX®. Both standards were tested and Indonesian-specific models thereafter derived.When applied to the Indonesian sample, both the Klales and Kenyhercz standards resulted in lower classification accuracy relative to the original studies. In considering the Indonesian-specific models, the ventral arc was the most accurate for the classification of sex, at 93.3% with a - 3.0% sex bias. The accuracy of the three-trait model was 94.4%, with a - 5.5% sex bias. Age was shown to significantly affect the distribution of pelvic trait scores. As such, age-dependent models were also derived, with the standard for individuals between 30 and 49 years the most accurate, at 93.1% and a sex bias of - 4.0%. Accuracy was lower in individuals aged ≥ 50 years, at 91.3% and a sex bias of 4.1%. These findings support the importance of establishing population-specific standards and to facilitate improved accuracy and capabilities for forensic practitioners in Indonesia.