Dr. George Papanicolaou: The Visionary Who Revolutionized Women's Health.

Dr. George Papanicolaou, a distinguished Greek physician, biologist, and researcher, made monumental contributions to medical science, particularly in the field of cytopathology. His groundbreaking work in the early detection of cervical cancer through the development of the Pap smear has had an enduring global impact, transforming women's healthcare and significantly reducing mortality rates associated with cervical cancer. Papanicolaou's journey from his early education in Greece to his pioneering research in the United States exemplifies a relentless pursuit of scientific discovery and innovation. Papanicolaou's life and achievements continue to serve as a beacon of innovation in medical research, illustrating the profound impact that one individual's dedication can have on public health and the ongoing fight against cancer.

Andrew Victor Schally: Pioneering Neuroendocrinologist and Architect of Luteinizing Hormone-Releasing Hormone Analogs.

Andrew Victor Schally is a pioneering figure in endocrinology and neuroendocrinology, whose work has fundamentally transformed the understanding and treatment of hormone-related disorders and cancer. His research, particularly in the isolation, characterization, and clinical application of hypothalamic hormones, has been instrumental in advancing medical science. Schally's early life, marked by the adversities of World War II, shaped his resilience and determination, driving him to pursue a career in medical research. His groundbreaking discovery of luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH) and its analogs revolutionized the treatment of hormone-dependent cancers, especially advanced prostate cancer, by providing an effective alternative to surgical castration. Beyond LHRH, Schally's contributions to the development of somatostatin analogs have also had a significant impact on the management of acromegaly and neuroendocrine tumors. This article reviews Schally's life and work, emphasizing his contributions to endocrinology, particularly in the context of LHRH and its clinical applications. The review outlines his early life and education, his pioneering research on hypothalamic hormones, and the development of LHRH analogs that have become a cornerstone in the treatment of prostate cancer. Schally's ability to translate basic scientific discoveries into practical therapeutic strategies has earned him numerous accolades, including the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1977. His legacy continues to inspire and guide research in endocrinology and oncology, underscoring the lasting impact of his scientific achievements.

Scoring for Life: The Legacy of Virginia Apgar in Neonatal Medicine.

Dr. Virginia Apgar was a pioneering figure in obstetric anesthesiology and neonatology, breaking significant barriers in the medical field. She developed a standardized method for assessing the health of newborns, which has become a global standard and continues to be widely used even today. In addition to her clinical innovations, Dr. Apgar was a dedicated educator and advocate for prenatal care and the prevention of birth defects. Her contributions to medicine have had a lasting impact on healthcare practices worldwide. Beyond her clinical innovations, Dr. Apgar was a trailblazer in the medical field, breaking through gender barriers at a time when opportunities for women in medicine were severely limited. She also later became a key advocate for public health initiatives focused on reducing birth defects and improving maternal and infant care. Dr. Apgar's career was marked by her dedication to advancing medical knowledge, her commitment to education, and her tireless efforts to improve healthcare practices. Her legacy continues to inspire healthcare professionals around the world, underscoring the enduring value of her contributions to medicine.

Dr. Anandibai Joshi: An Indian Medical Pioneer.

Dr. Anandibai Joshi was the first Indian female physician to complete her studies in Western medicine at the Women's Medical College of Pennsylvania. A pioneer in medicine, she was a trailblazing Indian woman, who had faced many hurdles during her quest for education. In her short span of life, she faced a lot of emotional, mental, physical, and social turbulence and had to prove herself at every step to the orthodox patriarchal Indian society the need to study medicine. Studying medicine in India was impossible for females during the 19th century. During those days, the females in India were uneducated due to gender differences prevalent in society, so the only option was to pursue medicine in a foreign land. Her life was full of hardships and challenges; she got married at the age of nine and, at the young age of 14, delivered a baby boy who could not survive beyond 10 days due to lack of medical care. This was the turning point in her life, and she was determined to become a physician so that the other women would not suffer the way she had. Thus began her educational journey, to pursue a career in Western medicine. Before Anandibai went to the United States, she gave a motivating speech in a public gathering, expressing the need for female doctors in India and her keenness to pursue medicine in the United States. She challenged all the social norms in those days, whether it was fighting to break gender stereotypes or convincing the male-dominated society to study medicine in the United States. This article is a reflection of Anandibai's accomplishments in her life and medical career and her dedication, determination, and strong commitment to improving the lives of Indian women. Her short life is a reflection of hope, perseverance, determination, and success and an inspiration to many Indian women to pursue education and medicine.

Did smallpox cause stillbirths? Maternal smallpox infection, vaccination, and stillbirths in Sweden, 1780-1839.

While there is strong evidence that maternal smallpox infection can cause foetal loss, it is not clear whether smallpox infections were a demographically important cause of stillbirths historically. In this paper, we use parish-level data from the Swedish Tabellverket data set for 1780-1839 to test the effect of smallpox on stillbirths quantitatively, analysing periods before and after the introduction of vaccination in 1802. We find that smallpox infection was not a major cause of stillbirths before 1820, because most women contracted smallpox as children and were therefore not susceptible during pregnancy. We do find a small, statistically significant effect of smallpox on stillbirths from 1820 to 1839, when waning immunity from vaccination put a greater share of pregnant women at risk of contracting smallpox. However, the reduced prevalence of smallpox in this period limited its impact on stillbirths. Thus, smallpox was not an important driver of historical stillbirth trends.

Dr. Dharmendra's Enduring Influence on Leprosy: From Laboratory to Disease Control.

A stalwart of Indian dermatology, Dr. Dharmendra was particularly known for his breakthrough research on leprosy. Spanning over several decades, his work was marked by significant contributions, including the development of Dharmendra's lepromin, which served as a critical diagnostic tool and in advancing the understanding of immunological aspects of leprosy. Born in 1900 in present-day Pakistan, his early education and work experiences set the foundation for his later achievements in leprosy research. Despite the social stigma associated with the disease at the time, Dr. Dharmendra's dedication led him to take up key roles, such as the first director of the National Leprosy Control Programme and head of the Central Leprosy Teaching and Research Institute in Chengalpattu. His work significantly impacted leprosy control efforts in India. ⁤⁤His legacy was further cemented by his leadership in founding the Indian Association of Leprologists and his tireless editorial work in the Indian Journal of Leprosy. Through his publications and ongoing research, even after retirement, he continued to influence the field. Dr. Dharmendra's life and work remain a cornerstone of leprosy research, inspiring future generations. His legacy continues to be felt in the ongoing efforts to combat leprosy.

Edward Jenner: A Beacon of Hope in the Age of Disease.

Edward Jenner, born in 1749 in Berkeley, Gloucestershire, England is widely recognized as the pioneer of the smallpox vaccine, a breakthrough that paved the way for the eventual eradication of the disease. This article traces Jenner's journey from his early education and apprenticeship under renowned surgeon John Hunter to his groundbreaking work on vaccination. Jenner's keen observations led him to hypothesize that cowpox could provide immunity against smallpox, which he confirmed through an experiment in 1796. Despite initial skepticism and the continued practice of variolation, Jenner's findings gained acceptance, and his work laid the foundation for modern immunology. The article also explores Jenner's personal life, his contributions to the medical community, and the eventual global impact of his work, culminating in the eradication of smallpox. Jenner's legacy is a testament to the power of scientific inquiry and its transformative effect on public health.

Revolutionizing Rehabilitation: The Legacy of Dr. Pramod Karan Sethi and the Jaipur Foot.

Dr. Pramod Karan Sethi was a surgery lecturer who created the Orthopaedic Department and Rehabilitation Unit at the Sawai Man Singh Medical College and Hospital, Jaipur. He paired with a local craftsman, Pandit Ram Chandra Sharma, to create the well-known "Jaipur Foot". This affordable and durable prosthetic foot is aimed to meet the needs of amputees in both developing and developed countries. It allowed users to sit cross-legged, squat, and walk on rough ground. The invention of the Jaipur Foot also had a big impact on Sudha Chandran, an Indian actress and Bharatanatyam dancer's life. This feature was absent in the inflexible Western prosthetics available at that time. This biography explores Dr. Sethis's education and career path. It also looks into the challenges he faced while developing the Jaipur Foot. It also discusses his contribution to polio victim rehabilitation and his influence on amputee care worldwide.

Bénédict Augustin Morel (1809-1873): The Originator of the Degenerative Theory of the Heredity of Mental Disorders and the Pioneer of the Biological Approach to Psychiatry.

The concept of progressive hereditary degeneration, which significantly influenced medical, particularly psychiatric and in turn social thought of the second half of the 19th century, was articulated by Bénédict Augustin Morel. The distinguished French psychiatrist developed the theory of degeneration and created the nosological framework of the heredity of mental illness in order to explain the more frequent psychoses and nervous disorders. In the absence of patho-anatomical findings, Morel attributed these phenomena to hereditary causes. His theory was the first attempt to interpret insanity, mental disorders, and criminality, across generations, and formed the basis for the further development of psychiatry. It had a notable influence on many scientific disciplines of the time, such as criminology, anthropology, biology, and general pathology. It would later result in the emergence of eugenics, which raised several moral issues and would ultimately be used in many ways to justify segregation. Morel was mainly influenced by the monogenetic degenerative theory and believed that social progress could be achieved by the coupling of psychiatry, a social medicine, with philosophy and Christianity.

Dr. Hulusi Behçet: A Pioneer in Dermatology and the Legacy of Behçet's Disease.

Dr. Hulusi Behçet (1889-1948) was a renowned Turkish dermatologist who made significant contributions in the field. His innovative research led to the discovery of Behçet's disease, a complex autoimmune disorder characterised by recurring mouth ulcers, inflammation of the eye, genital ulcers, and skin lesions. Behçet was born in Istanbul and had a comprehensive medical education, which he expanded through subsequent studies in Europe. His medical career was marked by his astute observations and rigorous study, ultimately leading to the official identification of Behçet's disease in 1937. Behçet wrote more than 100 publications and made substantial contributions to the fields of dermatology and internal medicine, particularly in the areas of syphilis and cutaneous leishmaniasis research. The impact of his work may still be seen in the ongoing investigation and management of Behçet's illness, leading to enhanced well-being for numerous individuals across the globe. Dr. Behçet's commitment to medical science is honoured by the recognition of Behçet's disease, academic accolades, and institutions named after him. His work continues to be a fundamental aspect in the examination of autoimmune illnesses, demonstrating the lasting influence of his contributions to the field of medical science.

Medicine Through the Lens of Humanity: Exploring the Legacy of Oliver Sacks, the Storyteller Neurologist.

In an era of medicine when a paternalistic approach was the norm, neurologist Dr. Oliver Sacks infused his care with humanity, centering a dialogue that emphasized his patients' perspective and personhood. For most of his life, he encountered significant personal challenges, and struggled with prosopagnosia and an internal conflict with his sexuality. Instead of allowing these challenges to hold him back, he transformed them into the driving force behind a career that uniquely combined the scientific beauty of neurology and a humanistic patient-centered approach with the power of literature. Through non-fiction works like Awakenings and The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat, he translated the overwhelming complexities of neurological disorders into stories that touched the hearts of readers around the world, making the science of the brain more accessible and human. In his later years, Dr. Sacks grappled with his mortality and the broader questions of aging and life's purpose, themes central to his final book, Gratitude. His reflections emphasized the importance of aligning healthcare with patients' personal values and goals. Dr. Sacks' legacy is marked not only by his professional contributions and literary achievements but also by his deep compassion and innovative approach to patient care, which continues to influence modern medical practice and inspire an ongoing discourse about the intersection of science, humanity, and individual experience.

Pierre Fauchard (1678-1761): Pioneering Dental Surgeon of the Enlightenment Age.

Pierre Fauchard, widely referred to as the "Father of Modern Dentistry," fundamentally transformed the field with his seminal 1728 publication, Le Chirurgien Dentiste, ou Traité des Dents. Born circa 1677 in Brittany, France, Fauchard's early exposure to severe dental conditions during his naval service catalyzed his pursuit of advancements in dental science. Upon transitioning from naval service to establish a practice in Angers, and subsequently gaining acclaim in Paris, Fauchard systematically documented and organized dental practices, encompassing oral surgery, orthodontics, periodontics, and prosthodontics, thereby laying the foundational framework for contemporary dental practices. Fauchard's innovations included the use of materials such as lead, tin, and gold for dental fillings and the introduction of early orthodontic techniques, notably the Bandeau. His treatise also emphasized the importance of preventive care and oral hygiene, which provided a basis for modern dental hygiene protocols. Additionally, Fauchard's critical evaluation of fraudulent practices and his inclusion of numerous clinical case studies in his treatise bridged theoretical knowledge with practical application, significantly impacting dental education and professional standards. Fauchard's influence extends beyond national boundaries, profoundly shaping global dental practices and educational frameworks. The Pierre Fauchard Academy, established in 1936, continues to uphold his principles, underscoring the enduring relevance of his contributions. Fauchard's work remains a cornerstone of modern dentistry, reflecting his profound and lasting impact on the discipline.

Hidden in plain text: Uncovering hidden heterogeneity and social stratification in Ireland AD 1150-1800.

OBJECTIVES: Between the Irish late medieval (AD 1150-c.1550) (LMP) and post-medieval (AD c.1550-1800) (PMP) periods, colonial practices changed land ownership. Contextualizing these periods within a biocultural political economy framework supports increasing social inequality in the PMP, which we expect to be reflected in different skeletal markers of longevity and stress. Therefore, we hypothesized that widespread exposure to stressors and resource deprivation contributed to lower longevity in the PMP compared to the LMP, and that there would be greater variation between sites in the frequency of linear enamel hypoplasias (LEH) in the PMP. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We estimated age and counted matched pairs of LEH on 526 adult skeletons from the Irish counties of Dublin, Kildare, Louth, and Meath. Age-at-death was compared through Kaplan-Meier survival functions and non-parametric tests. Linear enamel hypoplasias prevalences were analyzed with Mann-Whitney U tests and Generalized Linear Models. RESULTS: Age-at-death distribution changed between the LMP and PMP for males, with males experiencing an increase in median-age-at-death. The same was untrue for females, who show no changes in median age-at-death. Analysis of LEH frequency per individual showed that variation between sites was significant in the post-medieval period but not in the late medieval period. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that social organization contributed to embodied health experiences that varied across time periods. Specifically, populations from the PMP appear to have embodied greater social inequality in their more varied susceptibility to stress. Our work demonstrates the strength of pairing historical texts with the analysis of skeletal remains to evaluate the impact of social structures on biological frailty.

Perioperative gum-chewing training prevents a decrease in tongue pressure after esophagectomy in thoracic esophageal cancer patients: a nonrandomized trial.

Tongue pressure (TP) decreases significantly after esophagectomy in esophageal cancer patients (ECPs). Meanwhile, 2 weeks of gum-chewing training (GCT) significantly increased TP in healthy university students. We examined whether perioperative GCT would decrease the proportion of patients exhibiting a decline in TP at 2 weeks postoperatively, and prevent postoperative complications, in thoracic ECPs (TECPs). This was a single-center interventional study, and nonrandomized study with a historical control group (HCG). TECPs who underwent first-stage radical esophagectomy were recruited. Thirty-two patients of 40 in the gum-chewing group (GCG) were completed perioperative GCT in 3 times daily. Propensity score matching was performed with covariates related to TP including preoperative age, sex, body mass index, and the repetitive saliva swallowing test result, and yielded a matched cohort of 25 case pairs. Eleven GCG patients [44.0%] exhibited significantly lower TP at 2 weeks postoperatively than before esophagectomy was significantly fewer than that of 19 patients [76.0%] in the HCG. The median number of fever days (> 38 °C) in the 2 weeks after esophagectomy in the GCG was significantly fewer than those in the HCG. Perioperative GCT may prevent postoperative TP decline and postoperative dysphagia-related complications after esophagectomy.

Rita Levi-Montalcini: From Persecution to the Nobel Prize and an Honorary Degree From a Canadian University.

Rita Levi-Montalcini (RLM) is recognized as a prestigious and renowned researcher of her time. She was the fourth woman to earn the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine in 1986 for the discovery of nerve growth factor (NGF). We review her biography and scientific discovery, and provide an example of why her discovery is still important. She had a special relationship with McGill University, Canada, which we describe. We searched for articles and books about her for biographical and scientific material and met with Dr. Claudio Cuello, Former Chair of McGill's Faculty of Medicine.  RLM was born in 1909 in Turin, Italy, where she had studied medicine. She started her career in research. Because of the anti-Jewish racial laws in Italy in 1938, she went underground and continued her projects in her bedroom. After the war, she visited St. Louis, USA, and conducted research there. Her experiments confirmed that tumors release a factor that causes nerve growth and cancer proliferation. Initially, scientists responded to this discovery with skepticism, but after its purification in 1959 and determination of its protein structure in 1971, NGF became widely accepted. Currently, crosstalk between cancers and nerves is poorly understood. The example of prostate cancer shows that surgical or chemical denervation of sympathetic nerves prevents the initiation of prostate tumors, whereas inhibition of parasympathetic nerve signaling reduces the spread of prostate cancer. McGill University awarded RLM a doctoral degree in 2011. It was the first time in its history that the University awarded an honorary doctorate outside of Canada, and the second one outside of Quebec. Through her discovery of NGF, RLM exemplified the power of passion and determination despite the obstacles she faced. Her relentless dedication has led to remarkable achievements.

William F. House: The Father of Neurotology.

William F. House (1923-2012) was an ear, nose, and throat specialist with a particular focus in otology and an inventor, with perhaps his greatest invention being the single-channel cochlear implant. Although heavily criticized at the beginning of his career for developing the single-channel cochlear implant, many individuals would soon benefit from the device that House created. He also revolutionized a new technique for the removal of vestibular schwannomas with assistance from his neurosurgeon colleague, Dr. William Hitselberger. House is considered as the "Father of Neurotology" because of his many advancements in the medical field with refined surgery techniques and life-changing devices.

Jonas Salk (1914-1995): Pioneering the Fight Against Polio and Beyond.

Jonas Salk (October 28, 1914 - June 23, 1995) was an American medical researcher celebrated for his pioneering work in virology, particularly the development of the first successful polio vaccine. This review highlights Salk's multifaceted talent and contributions. His research on the poliovirus led to the creation of the inactivated polio vaccine, proving that it could prevent the disease. In 1955, the discovery of the polio vaccine was a pivotal moment in the fight against poliomyelitis. Salk's contributions are celebrated in the record of medical history, highlighting his impact on modern medicine and public health. As a professor of bacteriology, preventive medicine, and experimental medicine, Salk's scientific journey, from his innovative methods to the creation and widespread use of the inactivated polio vaccine, helped eradicate polio from various parts of the world. His contributions beyond polio, such as his work on the influenza vaccine and the founding of the Salk Institute for Biological Studies, are also well known. By exploring Salk's legacy, this review examines how his work and dedication continue to influence modern medicine, public health, and science, impacting humanity.

Historical trends in teacher personality from human language.

Understanding the historical perception and value of teacher personalities reveals key educational priorities and societal expectations. This study analyzes the evolution of teachers' ascribed Big Five personality traits from 1800 to 2019, drawing on millions of English-language books. Word frequency analysis reveals that conscientiousness is the most frequently discussed trait, followed by agreeableness, openness, extraversion, and neuroticism. This pattern underscores society's focus on whether teachers are responsible. Polarity analysis further indicates a higher prevalence of low neuroticism descriptors (e.g., patient and tolerant) in descriptions of teachers compared to the general population, reinforcing the perception of teachers as stable and dependable. The frequent use of terms like "moral", "enthusiastic", and "practical" in describing teachers highlights the positive portrayal of their personalities. However, since the mid-20th century, there has been a notable rise in negative descriptors related to openness (e.g., traditional and conventional), coupled with a decline in positive openness terms. This shift suggests an evolving view of teachers as less receptive to new ideas. These findings offer valuable insights into the historical portrayal and societal values attributed to teacher personalities.

The urban in ecology: a quantitative textual analysis of the scientific literature over a century.

Many authors have described 'urban ecology' as a subfield of ecology that emerged in the 1990s and has expanded exponentially. We propose to take a step further and analyse the expansion of the 'urban' in ecology with a novel quantitative approach, with the aim to better understand the relationship between ecology and the urban. Previous quantitative assessments of the urban in ecology have focused on short to medium time spans (5 to 40 years) and on research coined as 'urban ecology', and have rarely considered the content of publications (e.g., vocabulary and topics) using quantitative methods. In this paper, we conduct a bibliometric assessment and an in-depth quantitative textual data analysis of a corpus of 960 articles published from 1922 to 2018 in 10 leading English-language journals in ecology and conservation biology. We address the following questions: (1) When and how have urban environments been integrated into ecological research during the past century? (2) What urban research topics have been investigated in ecology during the same period? (3) How have these research topics changed through time? Our results show that the urban was never entirely absent from publications in ecology. The quantitative analyses highlight three turning points (1970s, 1990s and 2000s) in the relationship between ecology and the urban. Moreover, they help visualize the shift from particularly scattered publications at the beginning of the period to publications characterized by a more homogeneous vocabulary, reflecting the stabilization of a research field focused on the urban in ecology. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11252-024-01603-4.

Dr. Willem Kolff: The Father of the Artificial Kidney.

Dr. Willem J. Kolff (February 14, 1911-February 11, 2009) is widely considered the father of dialysis. In addition, his innovations also included the artificial heart and lung, which earned him the title "the Father of Artificial Organs". In due course, his artificial kidney evolved into modern dialysis, a procedure that filters and purifies blood using an extracorporeal circuit, now a life-sustaining treatment for patients with end-stage kidney failure. Furthermore, his membrane oxygenator, which provided a method to add oxygen to blood as it passed through a machine, is still used in heart-lung machines during open-heart surgery. He is also known for his work in developing the artificial heart (although it now carries the name of his student, Dr. Robert Jarvik), which was used in subsequent designs, as a bridge to heart transplantation. Thanks to his work on the artificial kidney, millions of patients worldwide have benefited from life-sustaining hemodialysis. It can also be argued that Dr. Kolff's introduction of dialysis in 1943 marks the dawn of modern nephrology.