Dynamic coopetition game between private label and national brand under carbon trading policy.

The increasing environmental concerns have changed the coopetition behavior between private-label (PL) retailers and national-brand (NB) manufacturers, which needs firms to reconsider their competitive and cooperative strategies to cope with this change. To address this need, we incorporate carbon trading policy into dynamic coopetition game models between a PL retailer and an NB manufacturer. We examine their dynamic evolution trajectories of state variables, decision variables, and profit value functions by using numerical simulation. The sensitivity analysis shows that: (i) some key parameters affect the steady-state values of variables and profit value functions; (ii) the relative strengths of the NB manufacturer and the PL retailer affect decision variables and profit value functions. The results indicate that the carbon trading policy significantly affects dynamic coopetition between the PL retailer and the NB manufacturer.

The connection between manufacturer and private label brands and brand loyalty in chocolate bar buying decisions - A hybrid choice approach.

With the increase in health awareness more and more attention is paid to how manufacturers can respond to ever-changing consumer needs. This is especially true for the market of popular consumer goods such as chocolate. In order to understand Hungarian consumers' preferences in chocolate bars, we used the stated choice experiment method in our research. The attributes of our experiment included brand (manufacturer and private label), type (milk, dark, and white), a health claim (sugar free), as well as price, and our model estimations were done using the multinomial logit specification. In order to increase the explained rate of utility perceived by respondents, we also estimated a hybrid model containing a latent variable (representing consumers' brand loyalty). Our results reveal that the respondents showed a clear preference for manufacturer brands compared to private label brands. Regarding the type of chocolate, we found that milk chocolate received the most positive evaluation, which was followed by dark and white chocolate, respectively; we also demonstrated that sugar free products have a negative rating. In line with our preliminary expectations, a rise in the price of the product has a negative impact on utility as perceived by consumers. Brand loyalty is most characteristic of young and highly educated respondents, and a rise in brand loyalty lead to an increase in the preference towards manufacturer brand products compared to private label brand products.

Health and Non-Health Determinants of Consumer Behavior toward Private Label Products-A Systematic Literature Review.

This study aimed to analyze the international literature on consumer behavior toward private label (PL) products, guided by the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis) method. We searched for peer-reviewed studies published until January 2021 in the Scopus and Web of Science databases using two main search terms, namely, "consumer behavior" and "private label," which have several synonymous terms, such as "store brand," "private brand," and "own label." A total of 44 eligible studies were selected for the analysis. We formulated research questions regarding the most studied categories of PL products, the non-health factors determining consumer behavior toward PL products, and the frequency of including health aspects in the choice of PL products. The following were analyzed in the studies included in the systematic literature review (SLR): general data and study design (authorship, year of publication, location, characteristics of the sample, and research category), research specifications (factors/variables, hypotheses, and measured parameters), and general findings (findings and practical recommendations). We found that most of the studies had analyzed dairy products as PL products, and the main non-health selection factors used were lower price and price-quality ratios. Health aspects were considered in only four of the analyzed studies, which focused on the evolution of PL products from low-cost products to sustainable brands with significant added value in terms of quality and health aspects.

Comparison of the Nutritional Quality of Branded and Private-Label Food Products Sold in Italy: Focus on the Cereal-Based Products Collected From the Food Labeling of Italian Products Study.

The packaged foods sold in food stores may be "private-label" products (PL), when branded by the supermarket, and "branded" products (BR). PL products are generally cheaper than the BR counterparts, and this can be perceived as a sign of general low quality by consumers, when items are compared with their branded counterparts. Thus, the aim of the present study was to compare the nutrient content of BR and PL cereal-based foods, by evaluating the nutritional declaration reported on the food pack of products on the home-shopping website of major retailers present on the Italian market. A total of 3,775 items (~58% BR and ~42% PL), collected in the period from July 2018 to March 2019 and updated in March 2020, were included in the final analysis. Data were analyzed by means of the Mann-Whitney nonparametric test for two independent samples for differences between BR and PL categories and types. Overall, BR products showed higher contents of total and saturates than PL items. When products were grouped for categories and types, items only differed for the content of total fats, saturates, total carbohydrates, proteins, and salt. No differences were instead found for energy and sugar contents among any of the categories. However, we did not find any consistency in the direction of results. These results could be useful for future education activities aimed to help consumers in making informed food choices.

The Effects of a Supermarket-Based Intervention on the Nutritional Quality of Private-Label Foods: A Prospective Study.

Private-label products, products owned by supermarkets, are a growing area of the food supply. The aim of this study was to assess the effect of an intervention that provided an Australian supermarket ('intervention supermarket') with comparative nutrition data to improve the healthiness of their private-label range. Between 2015 and 2016, the intervention supermarket received reports that ranked the nutritional quality of their products against competitors. Changes in the nutrient content (sodium, sugar, saturated fat, energy and Health Star Rating) of products from the intervention supermarket between 2015 and 2018 were compared against changes achieved for three comparators (private-label products from two other supermarkets and branded products). The intervention supermarket achieved a significantly greater reduction in the sodium content of their products relative to all three comparators, which ranged between -104 and -52 mg/100 g (all p < 0.05). Conversely, the three comparators each achieved a greater relative reduction in the sugar content of their products by between -3.5 and -1.6 g/100 g (all p < 0.05). One of the comparators also had a greater relative reduction in the saturated fat and energy content of their products compared to the intervention supermarket (both p <0.05). There were negligible differences in the Health Star Rating of products between the intervention supermarket and comparators (all p > 0.05). Providing comparative nutrition information to a supermarket may be ineffective in improving the healthiness of their private-label products, likely due to competing factors that play a role in the decision-making process behind product reformulation and product discontinuation/innovation.

A Comparison of the Nutritional Qualities of Supermarket's Own and Regular Brands of Bread in Sweden.

Processed food is associated with unhealthy qualities such as higher content of harmful fats, sugars and salt. The aim of our study was to compare the nutritional qualities of supermarket's own brands and regular brands of bread sold in Sweden. Additionally, we compared the nutritional qualities of gluten-free and gluten-containing bread. We collected information from the labels of 332 bread products available in the largest grocery store chains. The Australian Health Star Rating (HSR) system was used to quantify the nutritional quality of each bread product. We compared all supermarket's own brand products to regular brand products, and gluten-free to gluten-containing bread. The mean HSR for the supermarket's own brands was lower than the regular brands (3.6 vs. 3.7; p = 0.046). For the regular brand products, the fibre, sugar and total fat content were greater (p < 0.001, p = 0.002 and p = 0.021, respectively), while less protein (p = 0.009) compared to regular bread products. Gluten-free bread had a lower HSR than gluten-containing bread (mean 3.5 vs. 3.8, respectively; p < 0.001). The regular brand products were slightly healthier than the supermarket's own brands, primarily as a result of a higher fibre content. Gluten-free bread products were slightly unhealthier due to a lower protein content.

Alignment of Supermarket Own Brand Foods' Front-of-Pack Nutrition Labelling with Measures of Nutritional Quality: An Australian Perspective.

Two voluntary front-of-pack nutrition labels (FOPNL) are present in Australia: the government-led Health Star Ratings (HSR) and food industry-led Daily Intake Guide (DIG). Australia's two largest supermarkets are key supporters of HSR, pledging uptake on all supermarket own brand foods (SOBF). This study aimed to examine prevalence of FOPNL on SOBF, and alignment with patterns of nutritional quality. Photographic audits of all SOBF present in three large supermarkets were conducted in Perth, Western Australia, in 2017. Foods were classified as nutritious or nutrient-poor based on the Australian Guide to Healthy Eating (AGTHE), NOVA level of food processing, and HSR score. Most (81.5%) SOBF featured FOPNL, with only 55.1% displaying HSR. HSR was present on 69.2% of Coles, 54.0% of Woolworths, and none of IGA SOBF. Half (51.3%) of SOBF were classified as nutritious using the AGTHE, but using NOVA, 56.9% were ultra-processed foods. Nutrient-poor and ultra-processed SOBF were more likely than nutritious foods to include HSR, yet many of these foods achieved HSR scores of 2.5 stars or above, implying they were a healthy choice. Supermarkets have a powerful position in the Australian food system, and they could do more to support healthy food selection through responsible FOPNL.

'Own-Label' Versus Branded Commercial Dental Resin Composite Materials: Mechanical And Physical Property Comparisons.

A majority of dental materials are manufactured by companies who have experience in the field. However, a number of "own label" materials have become available, principally marketed by distributors and other companies with little or no experience in the field. These materials are attractive because of their reduced cost, but they may have no research on which clinicians might base their potential performance. It is therefore the purpose of this work to compare the performance of different batches of a number of "own-label" dental materials with a similar number from manufacturers with experience in the field, using a variety of laboratory test regimes which include filler determination, degree of conversion, flexural strength and flexural modulus, in order to evaluate key material properties. The results indicated that own-label dental resin composites produced similar results to materials from established companies in terms of flexural strength characteristics and degree of conversion. However, a greater batch-to-batch variation in several mechanical and physical properties of the own-label materials was noted.

Marginal Adaptation, Gap Width, and Fracture Strength of Teeth Restored With Different All-Ceramic Vs Metal Ceramic Crown Systems: An in Vitro Study.

This study evaluated marginal adaptation before and after thermomechanical (TCML) loading, gap width and fracture strength of all-ceramic single crowns, as compared to porcelain-fused-to-metal (PFM). Thirty extracted premolars were prepared with a round shoulder of 1.0 mm depth. Specimens were restored with zirconia-ceramic (Group 1), lithium disilicate (Group 2) and metal-ceramic single crowns (Group 3). The replica of each sample was observed with a scanning electron microscope (SEM) to evaluate the crown-cement (c-c) and tooth-cement interface (t-c). After TCML, perfect margins decreased to 91.3% (c-c) and 93.9% (t-c) in Group 1, 94.6% (c-c) and 96.0% (t-c) in Group 2 and 73.5% (c-c) and 53.1% (t-c) in Group 3. The mean fracture strengths were 654.8 ± 98.1 N for Group 1, 551.3 ± 127 N for Group 2 and 501.43 ± 110.1 N for Group 3. All-ceramic systems could substitute for metal-ceramic crowns, but chipping of veneering ceramics, especially in zirconia-based crowns, should be investigated.

A Comparison of the Sodium Content of Supermarket Private-Label and Branded Foods in Australia.

Supermarket private-label products are perceived to be lower quality than their branded counterparts. Excess dietary sodium in foods contributes to high blood pressure and cardiovascular disease. Sodium concentrations in products are an important indicator of quality. We compared the sodium content of 15,680 supermarket private-label and branded products, available in four Australian supermarkets between 2011-2013, overall and for 15 food categories. Mean sodium values were compared for: (1) all products in 2013; (2) products in both 2011 and 2013; and (3) products only in 2013. Comparisons were made using paired and unpaired t tests. In each year the proportion of supermarket private-label products was 31%-32%, with overall mean sodium content 17% (12%-23%) lower than branded products in 2013 (p ≤ 0.001). For products available in both 2011 and 2013 there was a ≤2% (1%-3%) mean sodium reduction overall with no difference in reformulation between supermarket private-label and branded products (p = 0.73). New supermarket private-label products in 2013 were 11% lower in sodium than their branded counterparts (p = 0.02). Supermarket private-label products performed generally better than branded in terms of their sodium content. Lower sodium intake translates into lower blood pressure; some supermarket private-label products may be a good option for Australians needing to limit their sodium intake.