The influence of semantics on long-term visual memory capacity in children and adults.

Human visual memory capacity has a rapid developmental progression. Here we examine whether image semantics modulate this progression. We assessed the performance of children (6-14 years) and young adults (19-36 years) on a visual memory task using real-world (or meaningful) as well as abstract image sets, which were matched in low-level image attributes. For real images, we find comparable performance across the two age groups, consistent with previously reported results. However, for abstract images, we find a clear age-related difference indicating greater reliance of children's memory processes on semantics, suggesting that strategies for encoding abstract patterns keep improving even into late childhood. We complemented these studies with computational experiments designed to examine the role of increasing experience with real-world images on real and abstract image encoding, to examine whether the observed age-related differences, as well as the general privilege of real over abstract images, can emerge directly through experience with meaningful images. Our results provide support for this possibility and set the stage for a finer-grained investigation of the timeline along which children's memory capacity for abstract images reaches adult levels.

Evaluating the Feasibility of Emotion Expressions in Avatars Created From Real Person Photos: Pilot Web-Based Survey of Virtual Reality Software.

BACKGROUND: The availability and potential of virtual reality (VR) has led to an increase of its application. VR is suggested to be helpful in training elements of social competence but with an emphasis on interventions being tailored. Recognizing facial expressions is an important social skill and thus a target for training. Using VR in training these skills could have advantages over desktop alternatives. Children with autism, for instance, appear to prefer avatars over real images when assessing facial expressions. Available software provides the opportunity to transform profile pictures into avatars, thereby giving the possibility of tailoring according to an individual's own environment. However, the emotions provided by such software should be validated before application. OBJECTIVE: Our aim was to investigate whether available software is a quick, easy, and viable way of providing emotion expressions in avatars transformed from real images. METHODS: A total of 401 participants from a general population completed a survey on the web containing 27 different images of avatars transformed, using a software, from real images. We calculated the reliability of each image and their level of difficulty using a structural equation modeling approach. We used Bayesian confirmatory factor analysis testing under a multidimensional first-order correlated factor structure where faces showing the same emotions represented a latent variable. RESULTS: Few emotions were correctly perceived and rated as higher than other emotions. The factor loadings indicating the discrimination of the image were around 0.7, which means 49% shared variance with the latent factor that the face is linked with. The standardized thresholds indicating the difficulty level of the images are mostly around average, and the highest correlation is between faces showing happiness and anger. CONCLUSIONS: Only using a software to transform profile pictures to avatars is not sufficient to provide valid emotion expressions. Adjustments are needed to increase faces' discrimination (eg, increasing reliabilities). The faces showed average levels of difficulty, meaning that they are neither very difficult nor very easy to perceive, which fits a general population. Adjustments should be made for specific populations and when applying this technology in clinical practice.

Users' Interpretation of Pictograms and Pictures for Conveying Instructions and Warnings on Pharmaceutical Labels.

Pharmaceutical pictograms are figures that provide a visual representation of medication instructions and warnings. Pictograms were created in order to lower the continuously rising problem of poor medication adherence due to patients misunderstanding what is being instructed on medication labels. Research on pictograms show that their use could increase patients' comprehension of medication instructions, but the comprehension rates are still low. Researchers have argued that in order to improve the effectiveness of pictograms, they must be more concrete, simple, meaningful, and familiar. Pictures have these properties. Thus, the goal of this study was to examine if the use of pictures (i.e., real images) provide a better representation of what is being instructed to users on medication labels than pictograms. We hypothesized that real images would lead to a better understanding of the instructions and warnings for taking medication, and in turn, users would have higher comprehension levels. Participants completed an online survey evaluating the meaning of either pictograms or pictures. Both quantitative and qualitative data analyses were conducted on free responses to the questions and on users' ratings of the "goodness" of the stimuli. The results showed that participants were moderately accurate (74%) in their interpretation of pictograms, and the use of pictures did not improve their comprehension.