Devaluation of Attractive Alternatives: How Those With Poor Inhibitory Ability Preemptively Resist Temptation.

How do people resist in-the-moment temptation if they are poor at inhibiting their impulses? Theory on self-control suggests that people have a toolbox of strategies available to them that may be used preemptively to dampen temptations. Applying this to the goal of relationship maintenance, in two studies, we examined whether people motivated to maintain their romantic relationship but poor at inhibitory control would appraise an attractive alternative (AA) as less appealing prior to a face-to-face interaction. In Study 1 (N = 190), those with high motivation and low inhibitory control (measured with the Stroop) rated the AA as less appealing as compared with singles and those high in motivation and inhibitory control. We replicated the motivation by inhibitory control interaction in Study 2 (N = 219). The AAs paradigm and the Devaluation Effect provide a useful way to explore the toolbox approach to self-control strategies.

Development and Validation of the Compensatory Belief Scale for the Internet Instant Gratification Behavior.

Objective: The concept of "compensatory belief" pertains to an individual's conviction that the negative consequences of a specific behavior can be counteracted by engaging in a subsequent positive behavior. This study sought to devise a scale tailored to gauge compensatory beliefs concerning internet instant gratification behaviors. Methods: Utilizing the Credamo online questionnaire platform, data were amassed from two distinctive cohorts: organizational employees and college students. A collective 1064 responses were amassed. Results: The newly created Compensatory Belief Scale for Internet Instant Gratification Behavior was bifurcated into two versions: one tailored for employees (CBS-IIGB-E) and the other for college students (CBS-IIGB-S). Through an exploratory factor analysis, two factors were discerned, namely "Compensatory Beliefs for Working/Studying " and "Compensatory Beliefs for Resting". A confirmatory factor analysis validated this two-factor model with the following metrics for the employee version: SBχ2 = 54.88, df = 32, CFI = 0.974, TLI = 0.964, RMSEA = 0.064, SRMR = 0.047, and for the student version: SBχ2 = 19.26，df = 19，CFI = 0.999，TLI = 0.999，RMSEA = 0.008，SRMR = 0.033. The scores on the Internet Addiction Scale and the Smartphone Addiction Scale showed a positive correlation with the overall scores of the CBS-IIGB-E and the scores of its two factors. Conversely, the scores on the Self-control Scale exhibited a negative correlation with the total scores of the CBS-IIGB-E and the scores of its two factors. The correlation pattern with the criterion scales for the CBS-IIGB-S mirrored that of the CBS-IIGB-E, with the exception that the Self-control Scale only correlated with the two factors and not the overall score of the CBS-IIGB-S. The McDonald's Omega coefficients for the two factors of the CBS-IIGB-E were 0.84 and 0.86 respectively, and those for the CBS-IIGB-S were 0.82 and 0.87 respectively. Both scales demonstrated a test-retest reliability of 0.76. Significant differences in the scale scores across diverse target groups were observed in the simulation game of internet instant gratification behavior, thereby validating the predictive validity of the developed scales. Conclusion: The Compensatory Belief Scale for Internet Instant Gratification Behavior (CBS-IIGB) is a reliable and valid tool for measuring compensatory belief in situations where the allure of immediate internet gratification comes into conflict with long-term objectives, among both organizational employees (CBS-IIGB-E) and college students (CBS-IIGB-S).

The relationship between self-control and mental health problems among Chinese university students.

Background: Mental health issues are often associated with poor self-control. Therefore, effective interventions against mental health problems should include self-control training. However, it is unclear whether the effect of self-control varies across different types of mental health problems. Methods: A cross-sectional survey was conducted using the convenience sampling method at five universities in Chongqing, China, where 1,409 students reported their demographic information, level of self-control, and symptoms of irritability, depression, and anxiety. Descriptive statistical methods and a network analysis approach were employed to explore the relationship between self-control and symptoms of irritability, depression, and anxiety among 1,409 students. The bridging links between self-control and the three mental health problems were analyzed. Results: The findings revealed a negative correlation between self-control and symptoms of irritability, depression, and anxiety among university students. Impulse control was found to be the bridge between self-control and irritability or anxiety symptoms, while resistance to temptation was the bridge between self-control and depressive symptoms. Conclusion: These results demonstrate the different relationship between self-control with irritability, anxiety, and depressive symptoms. The findings of this study may shed light on future mental health interventions for university students during potential public health emergencies, such as prior knowledge of the main types of psychological problems among university students, which may allow for the development of precise self-control intervention strategies, such as targeting impulsivity or resistance to temptation.

A systematic review of ecological momentary assessment studies of appetite and affect in the experience of temptations and lapses during weight loss dieting.

Dietary temptations and lapses challenge control over eating and act as barriers toward successful weight loss. These are difficult to assess in laboratory settings or with retrospective measures as they occur momentarily and driven by the current environment. A better understanding of how these experiences unfold within real-world dieting attempts could help inform strategies to increase the capacity to cope with the changes in appetitive and affective factors that surround these experiences. We performed a narrative synthesis on the empirical evidence of appetitive and affective outcomes measured using ecological momentary assessment (EMA) during dieting in individuals with obesity and their association with dietary temptations and lapses. A search of three databases (Scopus, Medline, and PsycInfo) identified 10 studies. Within-person changes in appetite and affect accompany temptations and lapses and are observable in the moments precipitating a lapse. Lapsing in response to these may be mediated through the strength of a temptation. Negative abstinence-violation effects occur following a lapse, which negatively impact self-attitudes. Engagement in coping strategies during temptations is effective for preventing lapses. These findings indicate that monitoring changes in sensations during dieting could help identify the crucial moments when coping strategies are most effective for aiding with dietary adherence.

Hunger, temptation, and dietary adherence during weight management.

Preliminary evidence suggests that hunger and temptation may predict nonadherence to dietary intake goals; however, no studies have investigated the potential interaction between hunger and temptation in relation to dietary nonadherence nor have any investigated whether these associations may be different after the end of active behavioral intervention. Thus, the current study examined the week-to-week associations between hunger, temptation, and dietary adherence in 74 adults with overweight or obesity (mean ± SD age = 50.7 ± 10.4, BMI = 31.2 ± 4.5 kg/m2) enrolled in a 12-week, Internet-based weight loss program followed by a 40-week post-intervention observational maintenance period. Each week during the study, participants completed a questionnaire on which they rated their hunger, temptation, and dietary adherence on 7-point scales. Multilevel models demonstrated that higher levels of hunger and temptation were associated with lower ratings of dietary adherence during the same week, ps < 0.0001, such that 1-point higher ratings of hunger or temptation were associated with 0.2- and 0.5-point lower ratings of dietary adherence, respectively. Further, there was an interaction between hunger and temptation such that the association between temptation and dietary nonadherence was stronger when ratings of hunger were lower, p = .028. There were no differences in associations between the initial weight loss period and the maintenance period. Results suggest that hunger and temptation may serve as potential treatment targets for interventions aimed at improving adherence to dietary intake goals. Future studies should investigate whether interventions targeting hunger and temptation can improve dietary adherence and weight loss outcomes.

De-normalizing smoking in urban areas: Public smoking bans and smoking prevalence.

The effectiveness of command-and-control policies related to tobacco use has been studied in high-income countries. Still, there is limited evidence of their effects in low and middle-income countries. We explore the case of Colombia, a country that introduced a business-supported smoking ban in bars and restaurants and all public indoor spaces in 2010. This paper investigates the effect of smoking bans in bars and restaurants on smoking prevalence in Bogotá, Colombia. In this paper, we use the matching with triple-differences technique in analyzing household consumption data from the 2007 and 2011 quality of life surveys. This is done by exploiting their geographical proximity and variation in the density of commercial areas. We found that after the smoking ban implementation, smoking prevalence reduced in households near high-density commercial blocks compared to households near low-density commercial blocks (-10.8 pp.). The impact is larger for households with children and older household heads. Since households near high-density commercial blocks are more frequently exposed to smoking than households near low-density commercial blocks, the former would be more willing to internalize the smoking de-normalization process.

The impact of mindfulness meditation on social and moral behavior: Does mindfulness enhance other-oriented motivation or decrease monetary reward salience?

This perspective article provides an overview of the impact of mindfulness meditation (MM) on social and moral behavior. In mindfulness research, prosocial behavior has been operationalized as helping behavior, altruistic redistribution of funds, reparative behavior, or monetary donation. Studies concerning moral behavior are still scarce. Despite inconsistent evidence, several studies found a beneficial effect of mindfulness on prosocial outcomes (i.e., a higher propensity to spend or give away money for the sake of other individuals). However, since the employed tasks were reward-based, participants' decisions also directly affected their own payoff by reducing it. Crucially, MM also affects self-control circuitry and reduces reward-seeking behaviors and reward salience by making rewards less tempting. We have discussed evidence suggesting how challenging it may be to dissociate the specific weight of enhanced other-oriented motivation from one of the decreased monetary reward salience in explaining meditators' behavior. Future higher-quality studies are needed to address this open issue.

Moral disciplining: The cognitive and evolutionary foundations of puritanical morality.

Why do many societies moralize apparently harmless pleasures, such as lust, gluttony, alcohol, drugs, and even music and dance? Why do they erect temperance, asceticism, sobriety, modesty, and piety as cardinal moral virtues? According to existing theories, this puritanical morality cannot be reduced to concerns for harm and fairness: It must emerge from cognitive systems that did not evolve for cooperation (e.g., disgust-based "purity" concerns). Here, we argue that, despite appearances, puritanical morality is no exception to the cooperative function of moral cognition. It emerges in response to a key feature of cooperation, namely that cooperation is (ultimately) a long-term strategy, requiring (proximately) the self-control of appetites for immediate gratification. Puritanical moralizations condemn behaviors which, although inherently harmless, are perceived as indirectly facilitating uncooperative behaviors, by impairing the self-control required to refrain from cheating. Drinking, drugs, immodest clothing, and unruly music and dance are condemned as stimulating short-term impulses, thus facilitating uncooperative behaviors (e.g., violence, adultery, free-riding). Overindulgence in harmless bodily pleasures (e.g., masturbation, gluttony) is perceived as making people slave to their urges, thus altering abilities to resist future antisocial temptations. Daily self-discipline, ascetic temperance, and pious ritual observance are perceived as cultivating the self-control required to honor prosocial obligations. We review psychological, historical, and ethnographic evidence supporting this account. We use this theory to explain the fall of puritanism in western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic (WEIRD) societies, and discuss the cultural evolution of puritanical norms. Explaining puritanical norms does not require adding mechanisms unrelated to cooperation in our models of the moral mind.

Strategies to cut down drinking, alcohol consumption, and usual drinking frequency: Evidence from a British online market research survey.

BACKGROUND: Relatively little is known about how risky drinkers attempt to moderate their drinking in the absence of specialist support. The broader literature has identified multiple potential strategies that people use to cope with temptation when trying to control health-risk behaviours. This study aims to identify types of alcohol moderation strategies used by British adults, and to explore how concurrent alcohol consumption differs across moderation strategies, focusing on the important role of usual drinking frequency. METHODS: We use a continuous repeat cross-sectional survey and one-week drinking diary collected by the market research company Kantar; these provide detailed information on alcohol consumption during a diary week and on how individuals try to moderate alcohol use for 49,204 British adults trying to reduce their drinking from 2013 to 2019. We use Latent Class Analysis (LCA) to identify predominant types of moderation strategies. With a three-step method, we also analyse the associations between adopting different moderation strategies, measures of frequency and intensity of drinking events, and usual drinking frequency. RESULTS: We found evidence of four alcohol moderation strategies: 29% of individuals use a pre-commitment-focused strategy (having fewer drinking occasions), two set of individuals adopt self-control strategies within drinking occasions (specifically 28% select smaller drinks and 5% have fewer drinks), while 38% adopt a mixed strategy that involves all three. Those using commitment tend to have a higher average consumption per drinking occasion but lower overall weekly consumption compared to those using self-control. Weekly alcohol consumption is particularly high among individuals who are usual everyday drinkers and use self-control to cut down drinking. CONCLUSION: This analysis provides a useful platform for further work, using prospective or intervention designs, to test the relative effectiveness of different moderation strategies for alcohol consumers who want to reduce their alcohol consumption.

How Important Is Temptation Spending? Maybe Less than We Thought.

Temptation plays a key role in theoretical work on spending and saving in developing countries. The limited empirical evidence on its importance, however, suggests that cash transfers do not induce increases in temptation spending. This paper expands the evidence base by studying the effect of randomized exposure to temptation on spending decisions in rural Malawi. Consistent with the cash transfer literature, a more tempting environment does not induce significant changes in temptation spending. However, the magnitudes of both temptation spending levels and the treatment effects are somewhat sensitive to the definition of temptation spending used. This paper examines the potential factors that may be driving these null results, and suggests that future research may find a limited role for temptation in the economic decisions of the poor.

[Transcultural adaptation and validation of the Self-efficacy/Temptations Scale in Argentina]. / Adaptación transcultural y validación de la Escala de Autoeficacia/Tentaciones en Argentina.

Self-efficacy is the confidence in one's own abilities to avoid smoking in situations that can trigger desire. It is considered an important predictor of relapses. In Argentina there is no valid instrument to evaluate it. The objective of this article was to adapt and validate a Spanish version (in local Argentinean language) of the Self-Efficacy/Temptation Scale. The transcultural adaptation of the scale was carried out: translation, review by a committee of experts, reverse translation, new review and test of the questionnaire. Reliability (reproducibility, stability and internal consistency) and validity were then evaluated. We performed a factor analysis of main components with Varimax rotation with data from a sample of 200 smokers. A culturally and linguistically adapted version of the instrument was obtained, with inter-observer reliability of Intraclass Correlation Coefficient (ICC) = 0.90 and stability of ICC = 0.77. The internal consistency analysis yielded a global Crombach a = 0.93 and 0.85 for versions of 20 and 9 items, respectively. In the domain of Positive Affections a = 0.82 and a = 0.89; Negative Affections a = 0.89 and a = 0.90 and for Craving a = 0.84 and a = 0.75, also respectively for the two versions. In the exploratory factor analysis, three factors were identified that explained 95% of the variance of the questionnaire in its extensive version and 69% in its short version. A reliable and valid Argentinean version of the Self-Efficacy/Temptation Scale was obtained, to be applied to smokers.

La autoeficacia es la confianza en las propias habilidades para evitar fumar en situaciones quepuedan desencadenar el deseo. Se la considera un importante predictor de recaídas. En Argentina no existe un instrumento válido que permita evaluarla. El objetivo del presente trabajo fue adaptar y validar una versión en español (Argentina) de la Escala de Autoeficacia/Tentaciones. Se llevó a cabo la adaptación transcultural de la escala: traducción, revisión por un comité de expertos, traducción inversa, nueva revisión y prueba del cuestionario. Luego se evaluaron la confiabilidad (reproducibilidad, estabilidad y consistencia interna) y la validez. Se realizó un análisis factorial de componentes principales con rotación Varimax con datos de una muestra de 200 pacientes fumadores. Se obtuvo una versión cultural y lingüísticamente adaptada del instrumento, con una confiabilidad interobservador evaluada con el Coeficiente de Correlación Intraclase (ICC) = 0.90 y estabilidad de ICC = 0.77. En el análisis de la consistencia interna se obtuvo un a de Crombach global de 0.93 y de 0.85 para las versiones de 20 y 9 ítems, respectivamente. En el dominio de afectos positivos a = 0.82 y a = 0.89; afectos negativos a = 0.89 y a = 0.90 y para deseo intenso de fumar (craving) a = 0.84 y a = 0.75, también respectivamente para las dos versiones. En el análisis factorial exploratorio se identificaron tres factores que explicaron el 95% de la varianza del cuestionario en su versión extensa y 69% en su versión corta. Se obtuvo una versión argentina de la Escala de Autoeficacia/Tentaciones confiable y válida para ser aplicada a fumadores.

Adaptación transcultural y validación de la escala de autoeficacia/tentaciones en Argentina / Transcultural adaptation and validation of the Self-efficacy/Temptations Scale in Argentina

Resumen La autoeficacia es la confianza en las propias habilidades para evitar fumar en situaciones que puedan desencadenar el deseo. Se la considera un importante predictor de recaídas. En Argentina no existe un instrumento válido que permita evaluarla. El objetivo del presente trabajo fue adaptar y validar una versión en español (Argentina) de la Escala de Autoeficacia/Tentaciones. Se llevó a cabo la adaptación transcul tural de la escala: traducción, revisión por un comité de expertos, traducción inversa, nueva revisión y prueba del cuestionario. Luego se evaluaron la confiabilidad (reproducibilidad, estabilidad y consistencia interna) y la validez. Se realizó un análisis factorial de componentes principales con rotación Varimax con datos de una muestra de 200 pacientes fumadores. Se obtuvo una versión cultural y lingüísticamente adaptada del instrumento, con una confiabilidad interobservador evaluada con el Coeficiente de Correlación Intraclase (ICC) = 0.90 y estabilidad de ICC = 0.77. En el análisis de la consistencia interna se obtuvo un α de Crombach global de 0.93 y de 0.85 para las versiones de 20 y 9 ítems, respectivamente. En el dominio de afectos positivos α = 0.82 y α = 0.89; afectos negativos α = 0.89 y α = 0.90 y para deseo intenso de fumar (craving) α = 0.84 y α = 0.75, también respectivamente para las dos versiones. En el análisis factorial exploratorio se identificaron tres factores que explicaron el 95% de la varianza del cuestionario en su versión extensa y 69% en su versión corta. Se obtuvo una versión argentina de la Escala de Autoeficacia/Tentaciones confiable y válida para ser aplicada a fumadores.

Abstract Self-efficacy is the confidence in one's own abilities to avoid smoking in situations that can trigger desire. It is considered an important predictor of relapses. In Argentina there is no valid instrument to evaluate it. The objective of this article was to adapt and validate a Spanish version (in local Argentinean language) of the Self-Efficacy/Temptation Scale. The transcultural adaptation of the scale was carried out: translation, review by a committee of experts, reverse translation, new review and test of the questionnaire. Reliability (reproduc ibility, stability and internal consistency) and validity were then evaluated. We performed a factor analysis of main components with Varimax rotation with data from a sample of 200 smokers. A culturally and linguistically adapted version of the instrument was obtained, with inter-observer reliability of Intraclass Correlation Coefficient (ICC) = 0.90 and stability of ICC = 0.77. The internal consistency analysis yielded a global Crombach α = 0.93 and 0.85 for versions of 20 and 9 items, respectively. In the domain of Positive Affections α = 0.82 and α = 0.89; Negative Affections α = 0.89 and α = 0.90 and for Craving α = 0.84 and α = 0.75, also respectively for the two versions. In the exploratory factor analysis, three factors were identified that explained 95% of the variance of the questionnaire in its extensive version and 69% in its short version. A reliable and valid Argentinean version of the Self-Efficacy/Temptation Scale was obtained, to be applied to smokers.

Tobacco Use Status and Temptation to Try E-Cigarettes among a Sample of Appalachian Youth.

E-cigarettes are commonly used tobacco products among youth populations, including Appalachian youth. However, knowledge of the extent to which tobacco use status relates to temptation to try e-cigarettes is limited. Data from the Youth Appalachian Tobacco Study (n = 1047) were used. Temptation to try e-cigarettes was derived from a 12-item situational inventory. Tobacco use status was defined as never, ever non-e-cigarette, and ever e-cigarette use. A factorial ANOVA was used to estimate the adjusted association between tobacco use status and the e-cigarette use temptation scale. Two-way interaction terms between tobacco use status and gender, and tobacco use status and race/ethnicity, were plotted to depict effect modification. Approximately 10% of youth were ever non-e-cigarette users and 24% were ever e-cigarette users. Never and ever non-e-cigarette user middle schoolers had higher temptation to try e-cigarettes than their high school counterparts. The same relationship was found among never and ever e-cigarette users living in households with tobacco users. The ANOVA results suggest a positive, monotonic relationship between tobacco use status and temptation to try e-cigarettes, and that the adjusted group means differ by gender and race/ethnicity. The findings can inform tobacco prevention interventions for youth at higher risk for e-cigarette use, especially youth who have not yet tried e-cigarettes.

Tempted to join in or not? Moral temptation and self-reported behaviour in bullying situations.

We investigate the relationship between adolescents' construction of a transgression relating to a hypothetical temptation and bystander behaviour and bullying (offline and online). A total of 331 Swiss eighth graders completed an electronic questionnaire on bystanding, bullying, moral disengagement, and empathy. Moral functioning was assessed in a hypothetical scenario, using different moral judgements (deontic and self-judgement, judging the transgression; paper-and-pencil measure). Cluster analyses were used to identify patterns of moral functioning. For the open situation (deontic and self-judgement), happy transgressors, happy moralists, ashamed moralists, and indifferent moralists were differentiated, and for the transgression (accomplished deed) moralists and happy opportunists. The analyses yielded significant differences between the different cluster groups. Happy transgressors (open situation) reported higher levels of assisting the bullying than unconcerned moralists. Happy transgressors also reported lower levels of helping than ashamed and happy moralists. Opportunists (accomplished deed) reported higher levels of assisting the bullying, offline bullying, and lower levels of helping the victim. The multivariate GEE analyses showed that happy transgressors reported higher levels of assisting the bully and online bullying than the moralist groups (open situation). The study shows that adolescents who construct a favourable interpretation of yielding to temptation in a hypothetical scenario displayed higher levels of both assisting the bully and online bullying, emphasizing the need for incorporating targeted moral education in bullying prevention.

Interpersonal Consequences Predicting Adolescent Substance Use: Examining the Role of Temptation Coping, Motivation, and Impulsivity.

Background: Adolescent substance use is highly prevalent and problematic; it has been reported as one of the most pertinent leading health concerns in the United States. The current longitudinal study examined the presence of peer and parental interpersonal relationship consequences (IP) as a motivating factor in activating coping skills to decrease the frequency of adolescent substance use, while further evaluating the role of impulsivity within that process. Objectives: Two main hypotheses were proposed: (1) IP will decrease substance use frequency mediated by increases in motivation and temptation coping; and (2) impulsivity will moderate the link between coping and substance use frequency. Participants included 343 adolescents between the ages of 13-19 (M = 16.23) referred to Project READY, a school-based substance use intervention. Assessments were completed during Sessions 1 and 4 of the intervention. Results: Serial mediation analyses indicated temptation coping, baseline alcohol use, and Time 2 marijuana use were the only statistically significant predictors of Time 2 alcohol use. Temptation coping and baseline marijuana use were the only statistically significant predictors of Time 2 marijuana use. Conclusions: Once adolescents' baseline and concurrent substance use were incorporated into the model, there was no statistical significance of the indirect effects. Results provided a stronger examination of the factors related to long-term substance use among adolescents. Knowing that temptation coping and baseline substance use levels were significant predictors of time 2 substance use independent of interpersonal consequences and motivation to change provides a structural frame and highlights need for early intervention.

Affect, motivation, temptation, and drinking among alcohol-dependent outpatients trying to maintain abstinence: An Ecological Momentary Assessment study.

OBJECTIVES: Using Ecological Momentary Assessment we aimed to describe the time course of temptation episodes in alcohol-dependent outpatients in a real-life setting. We also examined whether affective and motivational variables were cross-sectionally and prospectively associated with temptation episodes. Additionally, we tested whether outpatients who drank against treatment goals (i.e., "lapsers") differed in craving, affect, and motivation from abstainers. METHODS: Participants were 43 alcohol-dependent outpatients (13 female). Using personal digital assistants (PDAs), patients were signaled to complete three random assessments per day for 4 weeks. They were also instructed to complete a temptation assessment whenever they experienced the temptation to drink alcohol. RESULTS: The number of temptation assessments declined over time and did not differ between lapsers and abstainers. Overall, craving was generally higher in lapsers (n = 14) than abstainers (n = 27). In lapsers, but not abstainers, abstinence motivation was lower at temptation assessments vs. random assessments. Across all patients, negative affect was prospectively associated with entry of temptation assessments later the same day. There were no significant effects for positive affect. CONCLUSIONS: In alcohol-dependent outpatients attempting to remain abstinent, negative affect is cross-sectionally associated with entry of temptation assessments. There is more evidence that negative affect precipitates temptations than vice versa. Professionals should be watchful of outpatients who report generally high levels of craving, and who report more negative affect and lower abstinence motivation, when tempted.

Staying true with the help of others: doxastic self-control through interpersonal commitment.

I explore the possibility and rationality of interpersonal mechanisms of doxastic self-control, that is, ways in which individuals can make use of other people in order to get themselves to stick to their beliefs. I look, in particular, at two ways in which people can make interpersonal epistemic commitments, and thereby willingly undertake accountability to others, in order to get themselves to maintain their beliefs in the face of anticipated "epistemic temptations". The first way is through the avowal of belief, and the second is through the establishment of collective belief. I argue that both of these forms of interpersonal epistemic commitment can function as effective tools for doxastic self-control, and, moreover, that the control they facilitate should not be dismissed as irrational from an epistemic perspective.

Justified indulgence: self-licensing effects on caloric consumption.

OBJECTIVE: Research on self-licensing, i.e. employing justifications to give into temptation, largely consists of studies examining dichotomous food choices (healthy vs. unhealthy), while evidence for its effects on how much (unhealthy) food is consumed remains scarce. The present studies aimed to demonstrate self-licensing effects on caloric consumption in both lab (Study 1 & 2) and field setting (Study 3). DESIGN: In all studies, female student samples were recruited. They either received a justification cue (license condition) or not (control condition), after which they could eat freely from unhealthy snacks (Study 1, N = 85 and Study 2, N = 95) or choose a snack for direct consumption at a take-out lunch place (Study 3, N = 110). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Caloric value of consumed snacks (Study 1 and 2) and chosen snack (Study 3). RESULTS: In all studies, caloric consumption was higher in the license condition compared to the control condition: Participants ate more of the provided unhealthy snacks (Study 1 and 2) and chose a snack of higher caloric value (Study 3). CONCLUSIONS: The present research corroborates self-licensing as an important factor in the consumption of unhealthy foods by employing more ecologically valid outcomes.

Resistance to temptation in toddlers at genetic risk for autism spectrum disorder.

Children with autism spectrum disorder often demonstrate difficulties with self-regulation, although studies of this construct in young children with autism spectrum disorder are limited. In this study, developmental changes were examined using a measure of self-regulation appropriate for young children, resistance to temptation. At 22, 28, and 34 months, toddlers with an older sibling with autism spectrum disorder (high risk) and toddlers with typically developing older siblings (low risk) were presented with an appealing toy and instructed not to touch it. Observers coded whether or not children touched the toy and the strategies they used to resist touching it. At 36 months, children were assessed for autism spectrum disorder, yielding three groups: high risk children with autism spectrum disorder, high risk children without autism spectrum disorder, and low risk children. At 22 months, most children, regardless of group, touched the forbidden toy; at 28 and 34 months, many high risk children without autism spectrum disorder and low risk children resisted the temptation to touch the toy, whereas most of the children with autism spectrum disorder did not. Differences in delay strategies were also evident. Some, but not all group differences, were accounted for by differences in language ability. Results highlight one early index of impulse control that differentiates children with emerging autism spectrum disorder from age-mates prior to the third birthday.

Does Self-Licensing Benefit Self-Regulation Over Time? An Ecological Momentary Assessment Study of Food Temptations.

Self-licensing, employing reasons to justify indulgence, may help resolve the conflict between immediate temptations and long-term goals in favor of the former. It was hypothesized that this conflict-resolving potential of self-licensing may benefit self-regulation over time. With a momentary assessment design, we examined how self-licensing affects self-regulatory ability and the capacity to deal with subsequent self-regulatory conflicts. One hundred thirty-six female participants filled out surveys eight times per day for one week. Food temptation strength, conflict, resistance, and enactment were assessed, as well as license opportunity and perceived self-regulatory ability. When self-licensing opportunity was high (vs. low), a weaker association between temptation strength and conflict was observed. High license opportunity was associated with higher perceived self-regulatory ability for instances of low degrees of temptation enactment and predicted better handling of subsequent conflict after high degrees of prior temptation enactment. These results suggest that self-licensing can support self-regulation after initial failure.