Functional traits linked to pathogen prevalence in wild bee communities.

Reports of pollinator declines have prompted efforts to understand contributing factors and protect vulnerable species. While pathogens can be widespread in bee communities, less is known about factors shaping pathogen prevalence among species. Functional traits are often used to predict susceptibility to stressors, including pathogens, in other species-rich communities. Here, we evaluated the relationship between bee functional traits (body size, phenology, nesting location, sociality, and foraging choice) and prevalence of trypanosomes, neogregarines, and the microsporidian Nosema ceranae in wild bee communities. For the most abundant bee species in our system, Bombus impatiens, we also evaluated the relationship between intra-specific size variation and pathogen prevalence. A trait-based model fit the neogregarine prevalence data better than a taxa-based model, while the taxonomic model provided a better model fit for N. ceranae prevalence, and there was no marked difference between the models for trypanosome prevalence. We found that Augochlorella aurata was more likely to harbor trypanosomes than many other bee taxa. Similarly, we found that bigger bees and those with peak activity later in the season were less likely to harbor trypanosomes, though the effect of size was largely driven by A. aurata. We found no clear intra-specific size patterns for pathogen prevalence in B. impatiens. These results indicate that functional traits are not always better than taxonomic affinity in predicting pathogen prevalence, but can help to explain prevalence depending on the pathogen in species-rich bee communities.

In vivo neutralization of bee venom lethality by IgY antibodies.

Bee venom is a complex mixture of molecules, among which melittin and phospholipase A2 (PLA2) are the toxic components involved in envenoming accidents with multiple honeybee stings. Traditionally, the treatment of envenomings has been based on the administration of specific antibodies to neutralize the deleterious effects of toxins. An alternative to mammalian polyclonal antibodies is the use of egg yolk immunoglobulins (IgY) due to their advantages regarding animal welfare and lower costs of production as compared to the conventional production methods. In this work, a novel composition containing specific IgY antibodies was developed. After four immunizations, IgY extracted from the egg yolks was able to recognize several components of the bee venom, including melittin and PLA2. The performance of IgY to neutralize the lethal activity was evaluated in a mouse model by using one median lethal dose (LD50) of the bee venom. The effective dose of the IgY extract was determined as 30.66 µg/mg. These results demonstrate the feasibility to produce IgY-based antivenoms to treat envenomings by multiple bee stings.

Role of Human Action in the Spread of Honey Bee (Hymenoptera: Apidae) Pathogens.

The increased annual losses in European honey bee (Apis mellifera) colonies in North America and some other countries is usually attributed to a range of factors including pathogens, poor nutrition, and insecticides. In this essay, I will argue that the global trade in honey bees and migratory beekeeping practices within countries has enabled pathogens to spread quickly. Beekeepers' management strategies have also contributed to the spread of pathogens as well as the development of resistance to miticides and antibiotics, and exacerbated by hobby beekeepers. The opportunities for arresting honey bee declines rest as strongly with individual beekeepers as they do with the dynamics of disease.

Approaches and Challenges to Managing Nosema (Microspora: Nosematidae) Parasites in Honey Bee (Hymenoptera: Apidae) Colonies.

UNLABELLED: The microsporidia Nosema apis (Zander) and Nosema ceranae (Fries) are common intestinal parasites in honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) colonies. Though globally prevalent, there are mixed reports of Nosema infection costs, with some regions reporting high parasite virulence and colony losses, while others REPORT: high Nosema prevalence but few costs. Basic and applied studies are urgently needed to help beekeepers effectively manage Nosema spp., ideally through an integrated pest management approach that allows beekeepers to deploy multiple strategies to control Nosema when Nosema is likely to cause damage to the colonies, rather than using prophylactic treatments. Beekeepers need practical and affordable technologies that facilitate disease diagnosis and science-backed guidelines that recommend when, if at all, to treat infections. In addition, new treatment methods are needed, as there are several problems associated with the chemical use of fumagillin (the only currently extensively studied, but not globally available treatment) to control Nosema parasites. Though selective breeding of Nosema-resistant or tolerant bees may offer a long-term, sustainable solution to Nosema management, other treatments are needed in the interim. Furthermore, the validation of alternative treatment efficacy in field settings is needed along with toxicology assays to ensure that treatments do not have unintended, adverse effects on honey bees or humans. Finally, given variation in Nosema virulence, development of regional management guidelines, rather than universal guidelines, may provide optimal and cost-effective Nosema management, though more research is needed before regional plans can be developed.

Adding Biotic Interactions into Paleodistribution Models: A Host-Cleptoparasite Complex of Neotropical Orchid Bees.

Orchid bees compose an exclusive Neotropical pollinators group, with bright body coloration. Several of those species build their own nests, while others are reported as nest cleptoparasites. Here, the objective was to evaluate whether the inclusion of a strong biotic interaction, such as the presence of a host species, improved the ability of species distribution models (SDMs) to predict the geographic range of the cleptoparasite species. The target species were Aglae caerulea and its host species Eulaema nigrita. Additionally, since A. caerulea is more frequently found in the Amazon rather than the Cerrado areas, a secondary objective was to evaluate whether this species is increasing or decreasing its distribution given South American past and current climatic conditions. SDMs methods (Maxent and Bioclim), in addition with current and past South American climatic conditions, as well as the occurrences for A. caerulea and E. nigrita were used to generate the distribution models. The distribution of A. caerulea was generated with and without the inclusion of the distribution of E. nigrita as a predictor variable. The results indicate A. caerulea was barely affected by past climatic conditions and the populations from the Cerrado savanna could be at least 21,000 years old (the last glacial maximum), as well as the Amazonian ones. On the other hand, in this study, the inclusion of the host-cleptoparasite interaction complex did not statistically improve the quality of the produced models, which means that the geographic range of this cleptoparasite species is mainly constrained by climate and not by the presence of the host species. Nonetheless, this could also be caused by unknown complexes of other Euglossini hosts with A. caerulea, which still are still needed to be described by science.

Gut microbiota instead of host genotype drive the specificity in the interaction of a natural host-parasite system.

Specific interactions between parasite genotypes and host genotypes (G(p) × G(h)) are commonly found in invertebrate systems, but are largely lacking a mechanistic explanation. The genotype of invertebrate hosts can be complemented by the genomes of microorganisms living on or within the host ('microbiota'). We investigated whether the bacterial gut microbiota of bumble bees (Bombus terrestris) can account for the specificity of interactions between individuals from different colonies (previously taken as host genotype proxy) and genotypes of the parasite Crithidia bombi. For this, we transplanted the microbiota between individuals of six colonies. Both the general infection load and the specific success of different C. bombi genotypes were mostly driven by the microbiota, rather than by worker genotype. Variation in gut microbiota can therefore be responsible for specific immune phenotypes and the evolution of gut parasites may be driven by interactions with 'microbiota types' as well as with host genotypes.

Short-sighted evolution of virulence in parasitic honeybee workers (Apis mellifera capensis Esch.).

The short-sighted selection hypothesis for parasite virulence predicts that winners of within-host competition are poorer at transmission to new hosts. Social parasitism by self-replicating, female-producing workers occurs in the Cape honeybee Apis mellifera capensis, and colonies of other honeybee subspecies are susceptible hosts. We found high within-host virulence but low transmission rates in a clone of social parasitic A. m. capensis workers invading the neighbouring subspecies A. m. scutellata. In contrast, parasitic workers from the endemic range of A. m. capensis showed low within-host virulence but high transmission rates. This suggests a short-sighted selection scenario for the host-parasite co-evolution in the invasive range of the Cape honeybee, probably facilitated by beekeeping-assisted parasite transmission in apiaries.

Bugged.

This was a great save. The crew could easily have missed the presentation of anaphylaxis and let the window for treatment with epinephrine slip away. This patient was in anaphylactic shock. There were no signs that supported a traumatic injury, and that, combined with diaphoresis, urticaria and tachycardic central pulse, contributed to the suspicion of anaphylaxis. Anaphylaxis is classified as distributive shock. This type of shock is caused by profound systemic vasodilation, and the heart is unable to increase output enough to maintain blood pressure. Other causes of distributive shock include sepsis and spinal cord injury. It is rare to have both hypotension and wheezing in such cases. In an anaphylactic reaction, an allergen, such as a food protein, medication, insect venom or latex, is introduced into the body. The mast cells of the immune system have a protein on their surface called IgE antibodies (Immunoglobulin E). The mast cells are filled with histamines [table: see text] and leukotrienes, which are chemical mediators. These are released when the allergen reacts with the IgE antibodies. When these mediators are released, they cause smooth-muscle constriction in the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts, resulting in wheezing, stridor, nausea, vomiting and diarrhea. They also cause vascular dilation, leading to edema and urticaria. Most patients will present with either profound vascular effect (shock) or wheezing; this is a rather rare presentation of a patient having both. The medication best suited to counteract the effects of these medicators is epinephrine. Epinephrine is an alpha- and beta-agonist, acting to constrict the vasculature and dilate the smooth muscles in the bronchial tree. Antihistamines can alleviate symptoms of anaphylaxis, but should only be used in addition to epinephrine, not as a substitute. In life-threatening reactions, epinephrine must be given quickly and in a form that the body can distribute. Use of the subcutaneous route with a solution mixed at 1:1,000 dilution is appropriate in most patients, but if the patient is in profound shock and not perfusing the skin (pale, cold, clammy skin), then a more diluted concentration must be given i.v. at a slow rate (1 cc every minute of the 1:1,000 dilution) until the patient recovers. If i.v. access is delayed or not available, give the 1:1,000 dilution intramuscularly, in the tongue or down the endotracheal tube. Refer to your local protocols for dosage, but the usual dose of epinephrine is 0.3-0.5 mg, or 0.01 mg/kg in a child. There are more than 40 million people in the U.S. with allergic histories that place them at risk for developing anaphylaxis. Each year over 5,000 deaths are attributed to anaphylaxis. The risk of death from anaphylaxis increases with a more rapid onset of signs and symptoms. Up to 25% of patients will experience a biphasic reaction. This means there is a recurrence of symptoms several hours after the initial reaction, and it is prudent to observe patients for a period of time following their initial treatment.

Picadura masiva de abejas e insuficiencia renal aguda / Acute renal failure after massive bee stings in a boy

Introducción. La picadura masiva de abejas desencadena graves efectos tóxicos por la cantidad de veneno transmitido. Se reporta un caso en un niño mexicano haciendo énfasis en las complicaciones renales. Caso clínico. Escolar masculino de 11 años, del medio rural del estado de Jalisco, que fue picado por más de 1 000 abejas de tipo no especificado. Después de 24 horas presentó disminución en su uresis y retención de azoados, iniciando manejo con diálisis peritoneal aguda por 4 días, mientras que los indicadores de función renal se normalizaron a los 15 días de tratamiento. Conclusiones. En el paciente pediátrico que sufrió picadura masiva de abejas, se deberá mantener vigilancia estrecha de su función renal en las primeras 24 horas y en caso de presentar insuficiencia renal se deberá evaluar el manejo con diálisis peritoneal aguda.

Enfermedades cutáneas producidas por algunos artrópodos en Chile / Cutaneous diseases caused by some arthropods in Chile

Existen muchos artrópodos que afectan al hombre y a animales. Algunos artrópodos sólo producen manifestaciones cutáneas o sistémicas, otros son vectores de diversas enfermedades. Las picaduras y mordeduras de artrópodos son un motivo de consulta muy frecuente en la práctica dermatológica diaria, la mayoría de diagnóstico y tratamiento fácil, sin complicaciones. A veces, sin embargo, las manifestaciones puden ser tan greves que producen la muerte. En ocaciones, por ejemplo, en pacientes que han viajado al extranjero, el diagnóstico de las lesiones puede ser difícil, y es necesario profundizar en los diagnósticos diferenciales. En este artículo revisamos las patologías cutáneas más frecuentes producidas por distintos artrópodos de las clases Insecta y Aracnida, tales como abejas, pulgas, moscas, chinches, vinchucas, arañas y escorpiones. Se describen con detalle las distintas manifestaciones cutáneas y sistémicas y se entregan algunos elementos teóricos en el tratamiento de éstas

Accidentes sistémicos por picadura de abeja / Systemic accidents for honey bee sting

La proliferación de la apicultura en la región, incrementó la población de riesgo a la anafilaxia por veneno de abeja. Objetivos: Presentar los resultados de los pacientes que pudieron ser evaluados al final de la inmunoterapia y la experiencia con los que la realizaron a distancia. Material y Métodos: Desde 1990 hasta 1995 consultaron 50 pacientes, 26 apicultores o familiares, por reacción sistémica ante picadura de abeja. Se efectuó IgE total y específica. Se testificó con veneno de abeja por intradermoreacción. Se trataron 33 pacientes. Terminaron el tratamiento 25 pacientes recibiendo 150 microgramos de veneno, cada 30 días, durante 3 años. A 20 pacientes se les proveía el veneno mensualmente. Culminando el tratamiento, 18 pacientes fueron testificados y a 9 de ellos se les efectuó IgG e IgE específica. Resultados: El 44 por ciento del total de pacientes eran atópicos. La mayoría sufrió anafilaxia por una picadura, dentro de los veinte minutos. En el accidente, sólo el 22 por ciento fue tratado correctamente. Hubo correlación positiva (88 por ciento) entre prueba cutánea e IgE específica. El 33 por ciento de los pacientes sufrieron provocaciones. La testificación se negativizó en 6 pacientes y la IgE específica en 3 pacientes. Manteniendo positivas la testificación y la IgE específica, dos pacientes fueron picados sin sufrir anafilaxia. Conclusiones: Fue válida la indicación de la inmunoterapia, aún sin reto diagnóstico con picadura. El tratamiento a distancia fue seguro. Si la testificación y la IgE específica permanecieran positivas, estaría indicado el reto con picadura; si ocurriera anafilaxia, se debería continuar el tratamiento

Vasculitis leucocitoclásticas e insuficiencia renal aguda asociada a picaduras de abejas.Reporte de un caso y revisión de la literatura / Leukocytoclastic vasculitis and Acute Kidney Failure associate with sting bee. A case report

Reportamos el primer caso nacional de vasculitis leucocitoclástica e insuficiencia renal aguda por picadura de abejas. Se revisa la literatura. Paciente varón de 54 años que sufrio alrededor de 2,500 picaduras de abejas, de la subespecie APIS mellifera, cursando luego con perdida de conciencia por 30 minutos sin desarrollar choque anafiláctico. Al quinto día, presento edema generalizado, oligoanuria, azoemia y purpura palpable. Ingresó a la UCI con PA: 150/100, lesiones eritematosas papulares y costrosas en zonas expuestas, edema generalizado, fondo de ojo normal. Exámenes: leucocitosis con desviación izquierda, anemia leve, retención nitrogenada, acidosis metabólica. Biopsia de piel: leucocitoclasia. Inmunofluorescencia: depósitos de complejos con IgM en el endotelio. sedimento de orina: hematuria, leucocituria y eosinofiluria. Recibió 10 sesiones de hemodialisis debido a insuficiencia renal hipercatabólica y, ademas, corticoterapia con evolución favorable