Short-term changes related to autotetraploidy in essential oil composition of Eucalyptus benthamii Maiden & Cambage and its applications in different bioassays.

Some forest trees have been polyploidized to improve their traits and to supply new germplasms for breeding programs. As trees have a long juvenile stage, the early characterization of the chromosome set doubling effects is crucial for previous selection. Thus, we aimed to characterize the chemical variability of essential oils from diploid and autotetraploid germplasms (autotetraploid A and B) of Eucalyptus benthamii, as well as to evaluate their larvicidal and allelopathic effects. Autotetraploid A showed a higher essential oil yield than diploid and autotetraploid B, which did not differ quantitatively. Aromadendrene, viridiflorol and α-pinene were the major compounds in the diploid essential oil. In contrast, compounds were present in autotetraploids, such as 1,8-cineole, limonene, α-terpineol, and α-terpinyl-acetate. Essential oils from the diploid at 50-200 ppm were twice as larvicidal than those from autotetraploids against Aedes aegypti larvae. Considering the phytotoxicity bioassays using Lactuca sativa, essential oils from both ploidy levels affected root growth. Moreover, the essential oils inhibited shoot growth at all concentrations tested (187.5; 375; 750; 1500; and 3000 ppm). Autotetraploid A and B had the same effect on shoot growth as glyphosate. The essential oils had no cytogenotoxic effect on root meristematic cells of L. sativa, whereas phytotoxic potential was identified mainly in shoot growth. This work demonstrated a dramatic change in secondary metabolism (terpene composition) related to an increase in the ploidy level in Eucalyptus germplasms. In addition, we report the novelty of the chemical composition of essential oils among germplasms and their potential use as larvicidal and post-emergence weed control agents.

Prevalence of Diterpenes in Essential Oil of Euphorbia mauritanica L.: Detailed Chemical Profile, Antioxidant, Cytotoxic and Phytotoxic Activities.

Plants belonging to Euphorbia L. genus are considered very interesting from a medicinal point of view due to their diverse metabolites and bioactivities. The essential oil (EO) of Euphorbia mauritanica L. is not studied up to date. Therefore, the present study aimed to explore the chemical profile of this EO and evaluate its antioxidant, cytotoxic, and allelopathic potentialities. The EO was extracted from the whole plant via hydrodistillation and then, analyzed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). The correlation of E. mauritanica with the other Euphorbia plants was established using chemometric analysis. The antioxidant activity was determined based on scavenging of the free radical, 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2'-azinobis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS). The anti-proliferation of the EO on the Hep G2 and MCF-7 cells was evaluated. Finally the allelopathic activity of the EO was assessed against the two noxious weeds, Dactyloctenium aegyptium and Urospermum picroides. Forty-one compounds were identified using GC/MS analysis, with an abundance of terpenoids (91.54 %) that were categorized into mono- (30.75 %), sesqui- (15.23 %), and diterpenes (45.56 %). Interestingly, the results revealed the preponderance of diterpenoid constituents although they are rarely found in the EOs of the plant kingdom. The major compounds were (3E)-cembrene A (18.66 %), verticiol (17.05 %), limonene (7.91 %), eucalyptol (7.26 %), α-pinene (5.61 %), neo-cembrene A (3.52 %), kaur-16-ene (3.24 %), and cembrene (3.09 %). The EO showed moderate antioxidant activity where it attained IC50 values of 83.34 and 64.21 µg mL-1 for DPPH and ABTS compared to 23.01 and 19.23 µg mL-1 for ascorbic acid as standard, respectively. The EO exhibited very weak cytotoxic effect on MCF-7 and Hep G2 cells. The EO showed significant allelopathic activities against the weeds D. aegyptium and U. picroides in a concentration-dependent manner. EO was found more effective against U. picroides than D. aegyptium with IC50 values of 0.79, 0.45, and 0.67 mg mL-1 and 1.17, 0.55, and 1.08 mg mL-1 for germination, root, and shoot growth, respectively. Due to the high content of diterpenes in E. mauritanica, further study is recommended for more characterization of pure forms of the identified diterpenes as well as evaluating their bioactivity either solely or synergistically.

Chemical composition and phytotoxicity of essential oil from invasive plant, Ambrosia artemisiifolia L.

Essential oils have been evaluated as appropriate phytotoxins with mechanisms of action that are different from those of synthetic herbicides applied in weed management activities, but little is known about the effect of Ambrosia artemisiifolia essential oil (EO) on weeds. Here, the chemical composition of A. artemisiifolia EO was analyzed using a Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry system. and the phytotoxic activities of the EO against monocot (Poa annua, Setaria viridis) and dicot (Amaranthus retroflexus, Medicago sativa) species are evaluated under laboratory and green-house conditions for the first time. The EO was rich in sesquiterpenes (62.51%), with germacrene D (32.92%), ß-pinene (15.14%), limonene (9.90%), and caryophyllene (4.49%) being the major compounds based on Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry analysis results. A. artemisiifolia EO inhibited seed germination and seedling development significantly in the tested species even at low concentrations (0.25 mg mL-1). In addition, bioassay results for the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and peroxidase (POD) increased and then decreased with an increase in EO concentration. Unlike the enzymatic activity, root cell viability declined significantly in the tested weeds in all EO treatments. Besides, a foliar spray experiment resulted in visible injury in leaves and a decrease in chlorophyll content and eventually led to wilting of all tested weeds. The EO (0.25-5.00 mg mL-1) altered Allium cepa root tip cells with a decline in mitotic index and an increase in chromosomal aberrations after 24 h treatment. The cytotoxic evaluation confirmed the mitotic inhibitory effect of EO, although the intensity varied under different concentrations. According to the results, A. artemisiifolia EO has the potential applications as a natural herbicide owing to its phytotoxic activity; which also helps to explain their potential involvement in allelopathic interaction of volatile compounds present in the EO that facilitate the invasion success of the exotic species.

The effect of protocatechuic acid on the phycosphere in harmful algal bloom species Scrippsiella trochoidea.

The effects of allelopathy and the potential harm of several isolated allelochemicals have been studied in detail. Microorganisms in the phycosphere play an important role in algal growth, decay and nutrient cycling. However, it is unknown and often neglected whether allelochemicals affect the phycosphere. The present study selected a phenolic acid protocatechuic acid (PA) - previously shown to be an allelochemical. We studied PA at a half maximal effective concentration of 0.20 mM (30 mg L-1) against Scrippsiella trochoidea to assess the effect of PA on its phycosphere in an acute time period (48 h). The results showed that: 1) OTUs (operational taxonomic units) in the treatment groups (31.4 ± 0.55) exceeded those of the control groups (28.2 ± 1.30) and the Shannon and Simpson indices were lower than the control groups (3.31 ± 0.08 and 0.84 ± 0.02, 3.45 ± 0.09 and 0.88 ± 0.01); 2) Gammaproteobacteria predominated in the treatment groups (44.71 ± 2.13 %) while Alphaproteobacteria dominated in the controls (67.17 ± 3.87 %); 3) Gammaproteobacteria and Alphaproteobacteria were important biomarkers in the treatment and control groups respectively (LDA > 4.0). PA improved the relative abundance of Alteromonas significantly and decreased the one of Rhodobacteraceae. PICRUSt analysis showed that the decrease of Rhodobacterceae was closely related with the decline of most functional genes in metabolism such as amino acid, carbohydrate, xenobiotics, cofactors and vitamins metabolism after PA-treated.

The mixed silicon and cadmium synergistically impact the allelopathy of Solidago canadensis L. on native plant species Lactuca sativa L.

Several invasive alien plants (IAP) can trigger evidently allelopathy on the seed germination and seedling growth (SgSg) of native plant species (NPS). The getting worse condition with heavy metal pollution (e.g., cadmium) can significantly impact SgSg of plant species. Silicon can offset the adverse effects of environmental pressure on the growth and development of plant species. Thus, it is important to evaluate the influences of silicon on the allelopathy of IAP on SgSg of NPS under cadmium stress to better understand the mechanism driving the successful colonization of IAP. This study focuses on the allelopathy of the infamous IAP Solidago canadensis L. (Canada goldenrod; by using leaf extracts) on SgSg of NPS Lactuca sativa L. under the separated and mixed silicon and cadmium addition. S. canadensis triggers notably allelopathy on SgSg of L. sativa and gradually upsurges with increasing leaf extract concentration. Thus, the growth performance of NPS will be gradually reduced with an increasing degree of S. canadensis invasion. Cadmium evidently declines SgSg of L. sativa due to the broken balance of plant species for nutrient absorption. The mixed S. canadensis leaf extracts and cadmium synergistically impact seed germination of L. sativa but antagonistically affect seedling growth of L. sativa. The mixed silicon and cadmium intensify the allelopathy of S. canadensis on SgSg of L. sativa probably due to the increased effective content of cadmium in plant roots under silicon addition. Thus, the mixed silicon and cadmium will be advantageous to the following invasion process of IAP largely via the depressed SgSg of NPS.

Heavy metal pollution improves allelopathic effects of Canada goldenrod on lettuce germination.

Large amounts of heavy metals have been released into the environment. Thus, the allelopathic effects of invasive alien species on the germination performance of co-occurring indigenous species may be altered or even heightened with the rapid growth in heavy metal pollution. This study evaluated the impacts of Canada goldenrod (Solidago canadensis L.) leaf extracts at concentrations of 0, 10 or 20 gl 1 on the germination of lettuce under different forms of heavy metal pollution (Cu2+ , Pb2+ or a combination of Cu2+ and Pb2+ ; 35 mgl 1) during incubation in Petri dishes for 10 days. Goldenrod leaf extracts (high concentration) reduced growth of aboveground and belowground parts of lettuce as well as competition for light and soil nutrients. However, low concentrations of goldenrod leaf extracts dramatically improved growth of lettuce roots, competition for light, soil nutrient availability, leaf photosynthetic area and growth competitiveness. The combination of goldenrod leaf extracts and heavy metal pollution was synergistic on most lettuce germination parameters, probably because high concentrations of goldenrod leaf extracts together with heavy metal pollution had a synergistic negative impact on lettuce germination. Consequently, increased levels of heavy metal pollution may favour invasion of invasive alien species while largely suppressing germination of indigenous species.

Cytotoxic allelochemicals induce ultrastructural modifications in Cassia tora L. and mitotic changes in Allium cepa L.: a weed versus weed allelopathy approach.

The stress induced by allelochemicals present in stem aqueous extract (SAE) of Nicotiana plumbaginifolia on alterations in growth, ultrastructure on Cassia tora L., and mitotic changes on Allium cepa L. were inspected. Application of SAE at different concentrations (0.5, 1, 2, and 4%) expressively reduced the growth of C. tora in terms of seedling length and dry biomass. Moreover, the ultrastructural variations induced in the epidermis of Cassia leaf (adaxial and abaxial surface) of 15-day-old saplings were analyzed through scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The variations noticed are rupturing and shrinking of cells along epidermis; damaged margins, extensively curled leaf apex along with the appearance of puff-like structures, grooves, and thread-like structures on the leaf surface. The epidermal cells of samples exposed to treatment no longer appear smooth relative to control, besides showing necrosis as well. Upon exposure to different concentrations of extract, A. cepa root tip cells showed aberrations in chromosome arrangement and disparity in the shape of the interphase and prophase nuclei along various phases of mitotic cycle as compared to control. The mitotic index (MI) showed a concentration-dependent decline in onion root tips exposed to SAE. The aberrations appearing frequently were formation of multinucleated cells, sticky metaphase and anaphase with bridges, sticky telophase, disturbed polarity, etc. The results also show the induction of elongated cells, giant cells, and cells with membrane damage by extract treatment. To our knowledge, this is the first gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis of the methanolic extract of N. plumbaginifolia stem. Overall, 62 compounds were reported, covering 99.61% of the entire constituents, which can be considered responsible for the allelopathic suppression of C. tora. The chief component was 4-tert-butylcalix[4]arene with the highest composition of 19.89%, followed by palmitic acid (12.25%), palmitoleic acid (8.23%), precocene 2 (7.53%), isophytyl acetate (4.01%), and betastigmasterol (3.95%).

Phytotoxicity and cytogenotoxicity of hydroalcoholic extracts from Solanum muricatum Ait. and Solanum betaceum Cav. (Solanaceae) in the plant model Lactuca sativa.

Plants are rich in biologically active compounds. They can be explored for the production of bioherbicides. In this context, the present work aimed to evaluate the allelopathic effect of hydroalcoholic extracts from two Solanaceae species: Solanum muricatum Ait. and Solanum betaceum Cav. For this end, we conducted phytochemical screening and biological assays, determining the effects of the extracts on germination, early development, cell cycle, and DNA fragmentation in plantlets and meristematic cells of the plant model Lactuca sativa L. (lettuce). The percentage of seeds germinated under effect of S. muricatum extract did not differ from the control, but plantlet growth was reduced at the highest concentrations. For S. betaceum extract, dose dependence was observed for both germination and plantlet development, with the highest concentrations inhibiting germination. The growth curves revealed the concentrations of 2.06 and 1.93 g/L for S. muricatum and S. betaceum extracts, respectively, as those reducing 50% of root growth (RG). At these concentrations, both extracts presented mitodepressive effect, besides inducing significant increase in the frequency of condensed nuclei, associated to DNA fragmentation and cytoplasmic shrinkage. The frequency of chromosome alterations was not significant. We further discuss the mechanisms of action related to the chemical composition of the extracts, which presented organic acids, reducing sugars, proteins, amino acids, and tannins, besides catechins and flavonoids, only found in the extract of S. betaceum.

Allelopathic Effects of Three Sweet Potato Cultivars (Ipomoea batatas) on the Invasive Plant Mikania micrantha.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Sweet potato [Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam] is an important locally grown cash crop in China; it was demonstrated to suppress the invasive plant Mikania micrantha (M. micrantha) H.B.K through strong competitiveness, but its allelopathic effects on this weed were unknown. The present study aimed to explore the allelopathic potential of sweet potato on M. micrantha. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The allelopathic effects of water extracts and soil incorporation from leaves of three sweet potato cultivars (SP1, SP0 and SP9) on the sprout seedling growth of invasive plant M. micrantha in Yunnan Province, China, were studied under laboratory and greenhouse conditions. RESULTS: Stem length, root biomass, aboveground biomass and total biomass of M. micrantha were significantly reduced with increasing concentration in both leaf water extracts and leaf soil incorporation of three sweet potato cultivars. Among these, SP1 had the strongest inhibition and the next highest impact was from SP0 with the lowest effect from SP9. The highest inhibition rates were seen for root biomass, followed by total biomass, whereas the lowest impact was on aboveground biomass. The strong correspondence between results for both leaf water extracts and leaf soil incorporation provided a good demonstration that compounds produced by sweet potato have allelopathic effects on M. micrantha. The general inhibition of M. micrantha by sweet potato followed the order among the three sweet potato cultivars tested as SP1, SP0 and SP9. Moreover, the synthetical allelopathic indices of leaf soil incorporation of three cultivars on M. micrantha were generally higher than these of leaf water extracts. CONCLUSION: Competition and allelopathy have primarily been seen as separate ecological weed management tools, but as these have demonstrated in the case of sweet potato where both mechanisms inhibit weed growth, there is potential for synergism between competition and allelopathy in the reduction of weed infestations.

Rice allelopathy in weed management - An integrated approach.

The intensive use of pesticides with low biodegradability and high persistence in soil, surface and ground waters, represents a considerable environmental risk, especially under high weed pressure conditions. Furthermore, the number of herbicide-resistant weeds is increasing. Against this background, the investigation of alternative weed control strategies has taken on considerable importance. Among these, allelopathy as a negative effect of one plant on another due to the direct or indirect (including microorganisms) release of chemicals in the environment can be a useful tool for the integrated management of weeds in agroecosystems. In particular, the paddies have been considered in this work by reviewing the data both on rice allelopathy and rice weed agronomic control methods developed to improve the crop yield.

The allelopathic effect and safety evaluation of 3,4-Dihydroxybenzalacetone on Microcystis aeruginosa.

Harmful algal blooms (HABs) has been a serious problem in recent years, because of large quantities of cyanobacterial in eutrophic water. We studied the effects of 3,4-Dihydroxybenzalacetone (DBL) and other four compounds (vanillic acid, ferulic acid, 3,5-Dichlorophenol and cupric sulfate) on Microcystis aeruginosa. The results showed that the growth of M. aeruginosa was significantly inhibited by all tested compounds with a half maximal effect concentration (EC50) of 5.2, 22.8, 54.7, 1.5, 0.3µg/mL, respectively. Our data also demonstrated that DBL triggered the generation of superoxide anion radicals (O2-). The O2- might induce a lipid peroxidation which may change cell membrane penetrability, thereby leading to the eventual death of M. aeruginosa. In addition, DBL may has few toxic to aquatic species as indicated by its 96h half maximum lethal concentration value to zebrafish (Danio rerio) was far higher than 128µg/mL. Our current study further provides evidence that some phenolic acids such as DBL may be a potential effective solution for aquatic management.

Allelopathic Effect of Eucalyptus citriodora Essential Oil and Its Potential Use as Bioherbicide.

The current study aimed to evaluate the negative allelopathic effect of Eucalyptus citriodora essential oil on some of the most noxious weeds in Algeria (Sinapis arvensis, Sonchus oleraceus, Xanthium strumarium and Avena fatua). Gas chromatography-flame ionization detector (GC-FID) and GC/mass spectrometry (MS) were used to define the chemical composition of the oil. Citronellal (64.7%) and citronellol (10.9%) were the major essential oil compounds. Three concentrations of the oil were used for laboratory (0.01, 0.02 and 0.03%) and greenhouse (1, 2 and 3%) experiments. Seed germination and seedling's growth were drastically reduced in response to the oil concentrations where at 0.01 and 0.02% the oil drastically affects the seed germination of the tested weeds and at 0.03% the oil suppresses completely the germination of S. arvensis. The oil also exhibited strong allelopathic effect on the 3 - 4 leaf-stage plants 1 and 6 days after treatment. A completely death of S. arvensis, S. oleraceus and A. fatua and severe injuries on X. strumarium appeared at 3% of the oil. Chlorophyll content and membrane integrity were significantly affected after treatment of the plant weeds representing a severe reduction in total chlorophyll and cell membrane disruption. The study concludes that E. citriodora essential oil might has the potential use as bioherbicide and can constitute an alternative process of weed control.

Allelopathic Activity and Chemical Composition of Rhynchosia minima (L.) DC. Essential Oil from Egypt.

Aromatic plants attract the attention of many researchers worldwide due to their worthy applications in agriculture, human prosperity, and the environment. Essential oil (EO) could be exploited as effective alternatives to synthetic compounds as it has several biological activities including allelopathy. The EO from the aerial parts of Rhynchosia minima was extracted by hydrodistillation and investigated by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Different concentrations (50, 100, 150 and 200 µL L-1 ) of the EO were prepared for investigation of their allelopathic potential on two weeds; Dactyloctenium aegyptium and Rumex dentatus. Twenty-eight compounds, mainly sesquiterpenes (69.13%) were determined. The major compounds are α-eudesmol, 2-allyl-5-tert-butylhydroquinone, caryophyllene oxide, trans-caryophyllene, and τ-cadinol. The EO from the R. minima showed a significant inhibition of D. aegyptium and R. dentatus germination, while the seedling growth was stimulated. Therefore, it is not recommended to treat these noxious weeds with the EO of R. minima before the germination. In contrast, the apparent stimulatory effect on the seedling growth offers further studies to use the EO of R. minima to enhance the fitness of different economic crops. However, characterization of green bio-herbicides such as EO (allelochemicals) from wild plants raises a new opportunity for the incorporation of new technology of bio-control against the noxious weeds.

Growth, Toxin Production and Allelopathic Effects of Pseudo-nitzschia multiseries under Iron-Enriched Conditions.

In order to assess the effects of Fe-enrichment on the growth and domoic acid (DA) production of the toxigenic diatom Pseudo-nitzschia multiseries, static cultures that received the addition of different iron (Fe) concentrations were maintained for 30 days. Intra- and extracellular DA concentrations were evaluated over time, and growth and chain-formation were compared to those of non-toxic diatoms, Bacillaria sp. Growth rates of P. multiseries (µ = 0.45-0.73 d-1) were similar among cultures containing different Fe concentrations. Likewise, the similar incidence and length of P. multiseries stepped cell chains (usually 2-4; up to 8-cell long) among the treatments reinforces that the cultures were not growth-inhibited under any condition tested, suggesting an efficient Fe acquisition mechanism. Moreover, DA concentrations were significantly higher under the highest Fe concentration, indicating that Fe is required for toxin synthesis. Bacillaria sp. reached comparable growth rates under the same Fe concentrations, except when the dissolved cell contents from a P. multiseries culture was added. The 50-70% reduction in cell density and 70-90% decrease in total chlorophyll-a content of Bacillaria sp. at early stationary growth phase indicates, for the first time, an allelopathic effect of undetermined compounds released by Pseudo-nitzschia to another diatom species.

Chemical Composition and Allelopathic, Antibacterial, Antifungal, and Antiacetylcholinesterase Activity of Fish-mint (Houttuynia cordataThunb.) from India.

Fish-mint (Houttuynia cordataThunb.), belonging to family Saururaceae, has long been used as food and traditional herbal medicine. The present study was framed to assess the changes occurring in the essential-oil composition of H. cordata during annual growth and to evaluate allelopathic, antibacterial, antifungal, and antiacetylcholinesterase activities. The essential-oil content ranged from 0.06 - 0.14% and 0.08 - 0.16% in aerial parts and underground stem, respectively. The essential oils were analysed by GC-FID, GC/MS, and NMR (1 H and 13 C). Major constituents of aerial-parts oil was 2-undecanone (19.4 - 56.3%), myrcene (2.6 - 44.3%), ethyl decanoate (0.0 - 10.6%), ethyl dodecanoate (1.1 - 8.6%), 2-tridecanone (0.5 - 8.3%), and decanal (1.1 - 6.9%). However, major constituents of underground-stem oil were 2-undecanone (29.5 - 42.3%), myrcene (14.4 - 20.8%), sabinene (6.0 - 11.1%), 2-tridecanone (1.8 - 10.5%), ß-pinene (5.3 - 10.0%), and ethyl dodecanoate (0.8 - 7.3%). Cluster analysis revealed that essential-oil composition varied substantially due to the plant parts and season of collection. The oils exhibited significant allelopathic (inhibition: 77.8 - 88.8%; LD50 : 2.45 - 3.05 µl/plate), antibacterial (MIC: 0.52 - 2.08 µl/ml; MBC: bacteriostatic) and antifungal (MIC: 2.08 - 33.33 µl/ml; MFC: 4.16 - 33.33 µl/ml) activities. The results indicate that the essential oil from H. cordata has a significant potential to allow future exploration and exploitation as a natural antimicrobial and allelopathic agent.

Fusaproliferin, Terpestacin and Their Derivatives Display Variable Allelopathic Activity Against Some Ascomycetous Fungi.

Herbivorous mammal dung supports a large variety of fimicolous fungi able to produce different bioactive secondary metabolites to compete with other organisms. Recently, the organic extracts of the Solid State Fermentation (SSF) cultures of Cleistothelebolus nipigonensis and Neogymnomyces virgineus, showing strong antifungal activity, were preliminarily investigated. This manuscript reports the isolation of the main metabolites identified, using spectroscopic and optical methods, as fusaproliferin (1) and terpestacin (2). Furthermore, some key hemisynthetic derivatives were prepared and their antifungal activity was tested against the same fungi previously reported to be affected by the organic extracts obtained from SSF. These metabolites and their derivatives resulted able to reduce the growth of Alternaria brassicicola, Botrytis cinerea and Fusarium graminearum in a variable extent strongly dependent from chemical modifications and test fungi. The hydroxy enolic group at C(17) appeared to be a structural feature important to impart activity. This study represents the first report of these secondary metabolites produced by C. nipigonensis and N. virgineus.

Transformation of toxic and allelopathic lantana into a benign organic fertilizer through vermicomposting.

In a first study of its kind, the composition of vermicompost derived solely from the toxic and allelopathic weed lantana has been investigated using UV-visible and Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, thermogravimetric (TG) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), gas chromatography-mass spectometry (GC-MS), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The studies reveal that a sharp reduction in humification index, substantial mineralization of organic matter and degradation of complex aromatics such as lignin and polyphenols into simpler carbohydrates and lipids occur in the course of vermicomposting. GC-MS analysis shows significant fragmentation, bio-oxidation and molecular rearrangements of chemical compounds in vermicompost in comparison to those in lantana. SEM micrographs of vermicompost reflect strong disaggregation of material compared to the much better formed lantana matrices. The phenols and sesquiterpene lactones which are specifically responsible for the toxicity and allelopathy of lantana are seen to get significantly degraded in the course of vermicomposting - turning it into a plant-friendly organic fertilizer. The study leads to the possibility that the millions of tons of phytomass that is generated annually by lantana can be gainfully utilized in producing organic fertilizer via vermicomposting.

Phenolic acid allelochemicals induced morphological, ultrastructural, and cytological modification on Cassia sophera L. and Allium cepa L.

The allelopathic potential of leaf aqueous extract (LAE) of Calotropis procera on growth behavior, ultrastructural changes on Cassia sophera L., and cytological changes on Allium cepa L. was investigated. LAE at different concentrations (0.5, 1, 2, and 4 %) significantly reduced the root length, shoot length, and dry biomass of C. sophera. Besides, the ultrastructural changes (through scanning electron microscopy, SEM) induced in epidermal cells of 15-day-old seedlings of Cassia leaf were also noticed. The changes induced were shrinking and contraction of epidermal cells along with the formation of major grooves, canals, and cyst-like structures. The treated samples of epidermal cells no longer seem to be smooth as compared to control. LAE at different concentrations induces chromosomal aberrations and variation in shape of the interphase and prophase nucleus in A. cepa root tip cells when compared with control groups. The mitotic index in treated onion root tips decreased with increasing concentrations of the extracts. The most frequent aberrations were despiralization at prophase with the formation of micronuclei, sticky anaphase with bridges, sticky telophase, C-metaphase, etc. The results also show the induction of ghost cells, cells with membrane damage, and cells with heterochromatic nuclei by extract treatment. Upon HPLC analysis, nine phenolic acids (caffeic acid, gentisic acid, catechol, gallic acid, syringic acid, ellagic acid, resorcinol, p-coumaric acid, and p-hydroxy benzoic acid) were identified. Thus, the phenolic acids are mainly responsible for the allelopathic behavior of C. procera.

Flavonoids modify root growth and modulate expression of SHORT-ROOT and HD-ZIP III.

Flavonoids are a class of distinct compounds produced by plant secondary metabolism that inhibit or promote plant development and have a relationship with auxin transport. We showed that, in terms of root development, Copaifera langsdorffii leaf extracts has an inhibitory effect on most flavonoid components compared with the application of exogenous flavonoids (glycosides and aglycones). These compounds alter the pattern of expression of the SHORT-ROOT and HD-ZIP III transcription factor gene family and cause morpho-physiological alterations in sorghum roots. In addition, to examine the flavonoid auxin interaction in stress, we correlated the responses with the effects of exogenous application of auxin and an auxin transport inhibitor. The results show that exogenous flavonoids inhibit primary root growth and increase the development of lateral roots. Exogenous flavonoids also change the pattern of expression of specific genes associated with root tissue differentiation. These findings indicate that flavonoid glycosides can influence the polar transport of auxin, leading to stress responses that depend on auxin.

Characterization of the ecological interactions of Roundup Ready 2 Yield® soybean, MON 89788, for use in ecological risk assessment.

As part of an ecological risk assessment, Roundup Ready 2 Yield® soybean (MON 89788) was compared to a conventional control soybean variety, A3244, for disease and arthropod damage, plant response to abiotic stress and cold, effects on succeeding plant growth (allelopathic effects), plant response to a bacterial symbiont, and effects on the ability of seed to survive and volunteer in a subsequent growing season. Statistically significant differences between MON 89788 and A3244 were considered in the context of the genetic variation known to occur in soybean and were assessed for their potential impact on plant pest (weed) potential and adverse environmental impact. The results of these studies revealed no effects of the genetic modification that would result in increased pest potential or adverse environmental impact of MON 89788 compared with A3244. This paper illustrates how such characterization studies conducted in a range of environments where the crop is grown are used in an ecological risk assessment of the genetically modified (GM) crop. Furthermore, risk assessors and decision makers use this information when deciding whether to approve a GM crop for cultivation in-or grain import into-their country.