Long Bone Fractures in Impala (Aepyceros melampus): A Classification System and Review of 55 Cases.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to introduce a modified-Unger fracture classification in impala and report the findings of 58 long bone fractures classified according to this system. METHODS: This was a retrospective radiographical study evaluating 122 radiographs of 58 long bone fractures in 55 impala. The Unger fracture classification was modified and fracture illustrations for the metacarpal and metatarsal bones added. Each fracture was classified and assigned a four symbol α-numeric code using our classification. The patient signalment, skeletal maturity, fracture-associated soft tissue changes, presence of fissure lines, periosteal reaction and cause of the fracture were recorded. RESULTS: The overall fracture distribution based on location, found tibial (n = 17) fractures to be the most common fractured long bone. When combined, the majority of fractures involved the metacarpal and metatarsal bones (n = 23). Forty five of 58 fractures occurred in the diaphyseal bone segment. In all long bones, the distribution based on complexity was simple (n = 27), wedge (n = 16) and multi-fragmentary (n = 15) fractures. Thirty one of 58 fractures were open and fissure lines were detected in 20 of 58 fractures. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Our modified-Unger fracture classification was applicable in classifying 58 impala long bone fractures. This classification should provide the basis for further advances in veterinary and comparative ungulates, and particularly the antelopes, orthopaedics and traumatology.

Behavioral and endocrine correlates of dominance in captive female Jackson's hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus).

For species that form dominance hierarchies, such as group-living ungulates, aggressive interactions can pose a challenge to successful captive management. For example, Jackson's hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus), a rare antelope of east Africa, can be difficult to maintain in captivity because aggression within female dominance hierarchies can lead to injury and death. We quantified behavioral and endocrine correlates of dominance in a captive herd of ten female hartebeest with the goal of understanding how to minimize dangerous interactions. We observed hartebeest for 18 months in a 4-ha enclosure on St. Catherines Island, Georgia. We quantified type of agonistic behavior, initiator and recipient of the behavior, who displaced whom, and age and relative size of participants. We also used fecal steroid analysis to take weekly measurements of corticoids, a hormonal correlate of stress. Hartebeest maintained a stable, linear dominance hierarchy. Only 5.9% of interactions were reversals of established rank. Most dominance interactions were low intensity, but 17.3% of interactions carried a high risk of injury (chase, horn butt, horn clash, horn clash on knees, and head push). High-ranking individuals usually initiated interactions. Most interactions were between animals of similar rank, and animals of intermediate rank participated in the highest number of interactions. The frequency of high-intensity interactions was unrelated to rank. Rank was correlated with age, but not size. There was no relationship between rank and fecal corticoid levels. Dominance interactions in hartebeest are not a function of social instability, and the frequency of dangerous interactions is not a function of rank.

Xenotransfusion with packed bovine red blood cells to a wildebeest calf (Connochaetes taurinus).

A 4-month-old female blue wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus) was presented for bilateral pelvic limb fracture repair. Clinical examination under anaesthesia revealed a water-hammer pulse and a haematocrit of 0.13. A xenotransfusion was performed using bovine (Bos taurus) erythrocytes because of inability to acquire a wildebeest donor. Clinical parameters improved following transfusion and the post-operative haematocrit value was 0.31. The wildebeest remained physiologically stable with a gradually declining haematocrit for the next three days. On the third post-operative day, the wildebeest refractured its femur and was humanely euthanised because of the poor prognosis for further fracture repair. Xenotransfusion using blood from domestic ruminants represents a life-saving short-term emergency treatment of anaemic hypoxia in wild ungulates. Domestic goats could be used as blood donors for rare ungulates where allodonors are not available.

Surgical resolution of an avulsion fracture of the peroneus tertius origin in a giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis reticulata).

A 4-mo-old, 185-kg male giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis reticulata) was presented due to stifle effusion and lameness of 3-wk duration. Radiographs revealed a fracture of the extensor fossa of the lateral trochlear ridge of the femur at the origin of the peroneus tertius. Under anesthesia, dysfunction of the reciprocal apparatus was documented by flexing the stifle while the tarsus remained extended. An avulsion fracture of the origin of the peroneus tertius and extensor digitorum longus muscle was diagnosed. An exploratory arthroscopy of the femorotibial joint was followed by arthrotomy to excise the large bone fragment from its soft tissue attachments. Because of the fractious temperament of the animal, postoperative care was restricted to stall rest for 3 mo, and no postoperative complications arose. Only a mild residual lameness remained by 6 mo after surgery.

Transposition of the biceps tendon to reduce lateral scapulohumeral luxation in three species of nondomestic ruminant.

Open reduction of lateral luxation of the scapulohumeral joint was performed in a Mhorr gazelle (Gazella dama mhorr), a southern pudu (Pudu puda), and an Alpine ibex (Capra ibex ibex) by transposition of the biceps brachii tendon lateral to the greater tubercle of the humerus. The ibex had a very large greater tubercle that required a second osteotomy to allow successful lateral transfer of the tendon. Although all three animals were non-weight bearing in the first 2-3 wk after surgery, ambulation improved at 3 wk and was almost normal by 6 wk after surgery. Postoperative follow-up of 8 yr, 7 mo, and 3 mo in the gazelle, pudu, and ibex, respectively, revealed normal ambulation with no gait deficits. The gazelle was euthanized 8 yr after surgery for unrelated disease and necropsy demonstrated mild to moderate degenerative joint disease. Similar lateral shoulder luxations in comparably sized, nondomestic ruminants, without concurrent fractures or significant joint abnormality, have a good prognosis for return to function after surgical reduction using a biceps tendon transposition.

Spontaneously occurring fractures of the spine in skeletally immature animals.

STUDY DESIGN: Twelve spontaneously occurring fractures of the spin in nine skeletally immature animals were investigated. OBJECTIVES: These fractures were analyzed radiographically, morphologically, and histologically. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: The most commonly injured regions were the cervical and lumbar regions. Multiple-level fractures were noted in three specimens. METHODS: Morphologic and histologic examination invariably detected fractures in cases of spinal cord injury without radiographic abnormality. RESULTS: The end-plate physes and synchondroses were found to be the "weak links" for propagation of fractures. Radiographically benign-appearing ring apophyseal fractures were found histologically to propagate from the end-plate physis through the vertebral body via the contiguous neurocentral synchondroses. CONCLUSIONS: The observed morphologic and histologic fracture patterns should provide a better understanding of the probable comparable pathoanatomy of spine and spinal cord injuries in children.

[An unusual example of primary weight bearing stability of a limb fracture of the oryx antelope after external fixation with the original Ilisarov fixator]. / Ein aussergewöhnliches Fallbeispiel für die primäre Belastungsstabilität einer Extremitätenfraktur der Oryx-Antilope nach externer Fixation mit dem Original-Ilisarow-Fixateur.

This paper reports the stabilization of an open comminuted fracture of the metatarsus of a rare white Arabian oryx using an original Ilisarov-fixator. The antelope (weighing 75 kg!) walked with its full weight on the stabilized leg immediately after operative treatment, thus demonstrating the high degree of stability of such a system. In our opinion, the Ilisarow technique is, in selected cases, an adequate method for stabilizing highly unstable open fractures in veterinary practice.

[Rumen fistula operation in a sitatunga antelope (Tragelaphus spekei gratus)]. / Pansenfisteloperation bei einer Sitatunga-Antilope (Tragelaphus spekei gratus).

It is reported on a fistula of the rumen in a Sitatunga caused by the butt of a horn. Surgical removal was successful.

Causes of mortality in impala (Aepyceros melampus) on 20 game farms in Zimbabwe.

The most common cause of death in impala (Aepyceros melampus) herds on 20 game farms in Zimbabwe was stress or physical injury during capture. Acute fascioliasis due to Fasciola gigantica was identified as the main disease problem associated with smaller game farms and where impala had been recently introduced. Losses associated with ticks and tick-borne diseases were rare. Impala in Zimbabwe are maintained in a healthy condition on game farms where they are given supplementary feed during the dry winter.