Assessment of Patellar Morphology in Trochlear Dysplasia on Computed Tomography Scans.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the patellar morphology of trochlear dysplasia and normal knees in different genders and in different severities of trochlear dysplasia on CT scans. METHODS: A total of 75 patients with trochlear dysplasia (110 knees) treated at the Third Hospital of Hebei Medical University from December 2013 to December 2018 were included in an experimental group, and an age-matched and sex-matched cohort of 46 patients with normal trochlear shape (61 knees) were randomly selected into a control group. The experimental group was divided into a female experimental group (Group FE, 47 patients, 72 knees) and a male experimental group (Group ME, 28 patients, 38 knees); the control group was divided into a female control group (Group FC, 31 knees, 24 female patients) and a male control group (Group MC, 30 knees, 22 male patients). Furthermore, according to the severity of trochlear dysplasia, Group FE was divided into a female low-grade dysplasia group (Group FL, 20 knees) and a female high-grade dysplasia group (Group FH, 52 knees); Group ME was divided into a male low-grade dysplasia group (Group ML, 16 knees) and a male high-grade dysplasia group (Group MH, 22 knees). All participants had undergone CT scans in the supine position; the patellar width and thickness, the lateral patellar facet angle, the Wiberg angle, and the Wiberg index were measured and compared. RESULTS: In trochlear dysplasia knees, the mean patellar width and thickness and the lateral patellar facet angle were significantly smaller; the mean Wiberg index was significantly larger than in normal knees, regardless of gender (P < 0.05); and there was no statistically significant difference in the mean Wiberg angle (P > 0.05). In the female groups, the mean patellar width and thickness and the Wiberg angle were significantly smaller; the mean lateral patellar facet angle was significantly larger than those in the male groups (P < 0.05); and there was no significant difference in the mean Wiberg index (P > 0.05). In the low-grade dysplasia group, the mean Wiberg index was smaller than that in the high-grade dysplasia group (P < 0.05), regardless of gender; however, there was no significant difference in the mean patellar width and thickness, the lateral patellar facet angle, and the Wiberg angle in low-grade and high-grade dysplasia (P > 0.05). CONCLUSION: On CT scans, the patella in trochlear dysplasia had a smaller width, a thinner thickness, a lengthened lateral facet, and a more flattened articular facet. In addition, the patellar articular facet was more prominent in female patients. With the severity of trochlear dysplasia increased, the lateral patellar facet became longer. In addition, the abnormal stress distribution on the patella influenced the patellar morphology in trochlear dysaplasia.

Are Patellofemoral Joint Alignment and Shape Associated With Structural Magnetic Resonance Imaging Abnormalities and Symptoms Among People With Patellofemoral Pain?

BACKGROUND: Patellofemoral malalignment has been observed among people with patellofemoral pain (PFP) and may be associated with the presence of imaging features of osteoarthritis, symptoms, and function. PURPOSE: To determine whether patellofemoral joint alignment and bony shape are associated with (1) cartilage, bone, and soft tissue morphological abnormalities defined on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and (2) reported symptoms and function among people with PFP. STUDY DESIGN: Cross-sectional study; Level of evidence, 3. METHODS: Participants (mean ± SD age, 30.2 ± 9.5 years; range, 14-50 years; 78 females, 58.6%) completed questionnaires regarding demographics, pain, symptoms, and function and underwent a 3-T MRI scan of their more symptomatic eligible knee. Structural MRI abnormalities were scored with the MOAKS (Magnetic Resonance Imaging Osteoarthritis Knee Score), and MRI alignment and shape were measured with standardized methods. Associations among MOAKS features, PFP symptoms, and alignment and shape measures were evaluated with regression analyses (α = .05). RESULTS: Minor cartilage defects were present in 22 (16.5%) participants, patellar osteophytes in 83 (62.4%), anterior femur osteophytes in 29 (21.8%), Hoffa synovitis in 81 (60.9%), and prefemoral fat pad synovitis in 49 (36.8%). A larger Insall-Salvati ratio was significantly associated with the presence of patellar osteophytes (odds ratio [OR], 51.82; 95% CI, 4.20-640.01), Hoffa synovitis (OR, 60.37; 95% CI, 4.66-782.61), and prefemoral fat pad synovitis (OR, 43.31; 95% CI, 4.28-438.72) in the patellofemoral joint. A larger patellar tilt angle was significantly associated with the presence of minor cartilage defects (OR, 1.10; 95% CI, 1.00-1.20), the presence of patellar osteophytes (OR 1.12; 95%CI 1.02-1.22), and prefemoral fat pad synovitis (OR, 1.11; 95% CI, 1.03-1.20) in the patellofemoral joint. Finally, a larger bisect offset was significantly associated with the presence of minor cartilage defects (OR, 1.05; 95% CI, 1.00-1.11) and patellar osteophytes (OR, 1.07; 95% CI, 1.01-1.14) in the patellofemoral joint. The majority of patellofemoral alignment measures were not associated with symptoms or function. CONCLUSION: For people with PFP, the presence of morphological abnormalities defined on MRI appears to be related to particular patellofemoral alignment measures, including higher Insall-Salvati ratio (indicating patella alta), larger patellar tilt angle (indicating greater lateral tilt), and larger bisect offset (indicating greater lateral displacement). Hardly any associations were found with symptoms or function. So there might be a distinct subgroup of PFP that is more prone to developing patellofemoral osteoarthritis later in life, as particular alignment measures seem to be associated with the presence of patellar osteophytes. Prospective studies are required to investigate the longitudinal relationship between alignment or bony shape and morphological abnormalities defined on MRI in this patient population.

Knee Deformities in Children With Down Syndrome: A Focus on Knee Malalignment.

BACKGROUND: Patellofemoral instability (PFI) has been the most reported knee abnormality in people with Down syndrome. Other reported knee abnormalities have been associated with PFI and different management approaches have been described with variable outcomes. The aim of this study was to describe the anatomic variations of the knee in children with Down syndrome. A comparison between knees with and without PFI was performed and our experience in treating knee abnormalities in Down syndrome was also reported. METHODS: Records of all children with Down syndrome were reviewed. Two groups were identified (knees with and without PFI). Radiographic measurements included the mechanical and anatomic lateral distal femoral angles, medial proximal tibial angle, angle of depression of medial tibial plateau, lateral tibial translation, and distal femoral physis-joint angle. On the lateral view, Insall-Salvati and Blackburne-Peel ratios were measured. The sulcus angle was measured on the tangential view. Measurements were compared between the 2 groups (with and without PFI).Knees with PFI were divided into 3 subgroups based on their treatment (group A: surgical valgus correction, group B: surgical soft tissue procedures for PFI, and group C: conservative treatment). Preoperative radiographs were used for the surgical group and last available radiographs were used for the conservative group. Clinical and radiographic data were compared between the groups. For groups A and B, clinical and radiographic data were also compared between preoperative and last visits. RESULTS: Of the 581 children with Down syndrome, 5% (31 children: 22 females, 9 males) had PFI in 56 knees. Mean age at diagnosis was 11.5±3.5 years. Of the remaining 550 children, 75 children had radiographs for 130 knees. Knees with PFI had significantly more valgus and a larger distal femoral physis-joint angle. Depression of the medial tibial plateau and lateral tibial translation were noted in knees with PFI. Insall-Salvati ratio was higher and the sulcus angle was larger in the PFI group.Of the 56 knees with PFI; 10 knees were in group A, 11 knees in group B, 33 knees in group C, and the remaining 2 knees had combined procedures. Preoperative mechanical and anatomic lateral distal femoral angles were smaller in group A than in group B or C. Grades of PFI improved in group B after surgery. This improvement was not noted in group A. CONCLUSIONS: In children with Down syndrome, different variations of the knee anatomy can be found. Although PFI might be the most evident knee abnormality, other underlying deformities are common. Treatment of the PFI should be planned through a comprehensive anatomic approach that addresses all aspects of knee deformity. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level IV-prognostic and therapeutic study.

CT-based morphological analysis of the posterior femoral condyle in patients with trochlear dysplasia.

BACKGROUND: The anterior part of the distal femur in trochlear dysplasia has been well investigated; however, to date, posterior morphological characteristics have not been well studied. This study aimed to evaluate whether the posterior femoral condyle in patients with trochlear dysplasia differs from those without trochlear dysplasia. METHODS: Computed tomography scans of 75 knees with trochlear dysplasia and 55 knees with normal anatomy of the patellofemoral joint were analyzed retrospectively. Three observers assessed the width, length, and height of the posterior condyle between the two groups. The intra-class correlation coefficient was used to evaluate inter-observer reliability. The independent Student's t-test was used to assess the statistical significance of the qualitative variables. RESULTS: There was excellent inter-observer reliability (intra-class correlation coefficient 0.91-0.99) for all of the quantitative measurements. There were significant differences between trochlear dysplastic and normal knees. The trochlear dysplasia group had a larger medial posterior condyle and smaller lateral posterior condyle than the control group. Furthermore, proportion of the posterior condyle in the distal femur markedly differed between the two groups: in the trochlear dysplasia group, the medial posterior condyle accounted for a bigger proportion, while the lateral posterior condyle accounted for a smaller proportion. CONCLUSION: Patients with trochlear dysplasia have different posterior femoral condyles compared with those without trochlear dysplasia. Patients with this condition have bigger medial posterior condyles and smaller lateral posterior condyles. A greater amount of attention needs to be paid to this abnormality.

Medial patellofemoral muscle: report of a rare variant / Músculo patelofemoral medial: reporte de una rara variante

Muscle anatomic variants range from absence of a muscle to supernumerary muscles, with a spectrum of possibilities that include anomalous course, anomalous origin or insertion, accessory slips, and others. The most common muscle variants around the knee include aberrant origin and accessory slips of the gastrocnemius muscles, presence of tensor fascia suralis muscle, and accessory popliteus. The medial patellofemoral ligament is a distinct extra-articular condensation of fibers located superficially to the medial joint capsule. We describe the presence of an accessory medial patellofemoral muscle in the expected location of the medial patellofemoral ligament, which to our knowledge has not been described in the literature before.

Las variantes anatómicas musculares van desde la ausencia de un músculo hasta la presencia de músculos supernumerarios, en un espectro de posibilidades que incluyen trayecto anómalo, origen anómalo o inserción, fascículos accesorios, y otros. Las variantes más comunes de músculos presentes alrededor de la rodilla incluyen el origen aberrante y fascículos accesorios del músculo gastrocnemio, la presencia del músculo tensor de la fascia sural y el músculo poplíteo accesorio. El ligamento medial patelofemoral es una clara condensación extra-articular de fibras localizado superficialmente a la cápsula articular medial. Se describe la presencia de un músculo patelofemoral medial accesorio en la ubicación esperada del ligamento patelofemoral medial, que a nuestro conocimiento no se ha descrito antes en la literatura.

Structural Abnormalities on Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Patients With Patellofemoral Pain: A Cross-sectional Case-Control Study.

BACKGROUND: Structural abnormalities of the patellofemoral joint might play a role in the pathogenesis of patellofemoral pain (PFP), a common knee problem among young and physically active individuals. No previous study has investigated if PFP is associated with structural abnormalities of the patellofemoral joint using high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). PURPOSE: To investigate the presence of structural abnormalities of the patellofemoral joint on high-resolution MRI in patients with PFP compared with healthy control subjects. STUDY DESIGN: Cross-sectional study; Level of evidence, 3. METHODS: Patients with PFP and healthy control subjects between 14 and 40 years of age underwent high-resolution 3-T MRI. All images were scored using the Magnetic Resonance Imaging Osteoarthritis Knee Score with the addition of specific patellofemoral features. Associations between PFP and the presence of structural abnormalities were analyzed using logistic regression analyses adjusted for age, body mass index (BMI), sex, and sports participation. RESULTS: A total of 64 patients and 70 control subjects were included in the study. Mean ± SD age was 23.2 ± 6.4 years, mean BMI ± SD was 22.9 ± 3.4 kg/m(2), and 56.7% were female. Full-thickness cartilage loss was not present. Minor patellar cartilage defects, patellar bone marrow lesions, and high signal intensity of the Hoffa fat pad were frequently seen in both patients (23%, 53%, and 58%, respectively) and control subjects (21%, 51%, and 51%, respectively). After adjustment for age, BMI, sex, and sports participation, none of the structural abnormalities were statistically significantly associated with PFP. CONCLUSION: Structural abnormalities of the patellofemoral joint have been hypothesized as a factor in the pathogenesis of PFP, but the study findings suggest that structural abnormalities of the patellofemoral joint on MRI are not associated with PFP.

The tibial-tubercle trochlear groove distance in patients with trochlear dysplasia: the influence of the proximally flat trochlea.

PURPOSE: Increased tibial tubercle trochlear groove distance (TT-TG) is frequently associated with trochlear dysplasia (TD). Since the trochlear groove appears more distally in patients with TD compared to controls, it is unknown whether TT-TG might be comparable and meaningful. METHODS: Fifty patients with TD were retrospectively analysed and compared to 52 age- and gender-matched patients (CG). TT-TG was measured on transverse MR images, as the distance between the trochlear groove of minimal 2 mm depth proximally and the centre of the patellar tendon at its distal insertion. The height of the femoral reference point above joint line was recorded for both groups. TT-TG measurement was repeated in CG using the first (P25), second (P50) and third quartile (P75) above joint line of TD. RESULTS: Patients with TD had a significantly smaller vertical distance between the most proximal trochlear deepening and the femorotibial joint line (20.6 mm, range 10.3-30.9) compared to CG (33.8 mm, range 25.4-41.1; p < 0.001). TT-TG values measured at 20 mm (P50) and 15 mm (P25) proximal to the femorotibial joint line were significantly smaller compared when measured with the most proximal reference point [1.8 mm (95 % CI 1.3-2.3, p < 0.001) and 2.4 mm (95 % CI 1.9-3.0, p < 0.001)] in CG. The inter-rater reliability was excellent (ICC 0.99). CONCLUSION: TT-TG distance depends significantly on the femoral reference point. Since the trochlear groove is seen more distally in patients with TD compared to controls, TT-TG of the patients with highest risk of recurrent patellar instability might be underestimated. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Diagnostic study, Level I.

Breech presentation is a risk factor for dysplasia of the femoral trochlea.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Instability of the patellofemoral joint is a common disorder in children and young adults. Although it has multifactorial causes, a shallow femoral trochlea is the single most important factor for instability. There is no consensus as to the etiology of trochlear dysplasia. We assessed whether the presentation of the fetus at birth could be a predisposing factor for trochlear dysplasia. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: We examined 348 knees in 174 newborns using ultrasonography, concentrating especially on the trochlea femoris. We measured the sulcus angle (SA) on a transverse scan. The way of fetal presentation at birth and standard parameters such as sex, gestational age, and length and weight at birth were registered. As breech presentation is a known risk factor for dysplasia of the hip, we also looked for an association between dysplasia of the femoral trochlea and dysplasia of the hips. RESULTS: The mean SA was 148°. 17 knees in 14 children had an SA of >159°, which was defined as the threshold value for dysplasia. The incidence of breech position in these children was 15-fold higher. Of the different groups of breech positions, a child in frank breech with the knees locked in extension had a 45-fold increased risk of having trochlear dysplasia. INTERPRETATION: For some newborns, a high sulcus angle can be found at birth, indicating that trochlear dysplasia can be found from birth. Breech presentation with knees extended appears to be a major risk factor for development of trochlear dysplasia.

[Patellofemoral instability in trisomy 21: MPFL-Reconstruction as a single procedure]. / Patellainstabilität bei Patienten mit Trisomie 21: Alleinige MPFL-Rekonstruktion als neue Indikation.

BACKGROUND: Patellar instability is a common orthopaedic condition which is often seen in younger individuals. Biomechanical studies have shown that the medial patellofemoral ligament (MPFL) is the most important soft tissue that restrains lateral subluxation of the patella in the beginning of flexion of the knee joint. METHODS: MPFL reconstruction is an effective procedure to treat recurrent patellar dislocation. Double-bundle and single-bundle procedures have been described. If double-bundle reconstruction is not possible, there are good postoperative outcomes with single-bundle procedure as well. DISCUSSION: This is the first report of MPFL reconstruction as a single procedure to treat patellar instability in patients with down syndrome.

Association and impact of patellofemoral dysplasia on patellofemoral arthropathy and arthroplasty.

BACKGROUND: The association of patellar and trochlear anomalies resulting in isolated patellofemoral osteoarthritis has often been postulated but rarely studied. The purpose of this study was to examine the association of patellofemoral dysplasia, specifically trochlear anomalies, which are a cause for degenerative disease and may result in a worse outcome after arthroplasty for isolated patellofemoral arthritis. METHODS: Eighteen consecutive patients who underwent robotic image-based patellofemoral arthroplasty were compared with an age and sex-matched group of patients who underwent medial unicompartmental arthroplasty using the same image-based navigation system and had no patellofemoral, lateral disease or malalignment. The compared parameters were the patellofemoral-trochlear angle and Dejour score in the preoperative radiographs and patellofemoral-trochlear angle and internal rotation of the trochlea compared to the intercondylar line in the proximal, middle and distal trochlea. RESULTS: Significantly higher rates of patella alta (T=5, P=0.0001) and trochlear dysplasia (6% vs. 55%) were found, as manifested by an increase in the trochlear angle and Dejour score. Furthermore, the trochlea was found to have a higher degree of internal rotation in patients with isolated patellofemoral arthritis compared to the control group. CONCLUSIONS: In conclusion, patellofemoral anomalies such as patella alta and trochlear dysplasia are present in association with isolated patellofemoral arthritis. Isolated patellofemoral arthritis is also associated with higher rates of trochlear internal rotation. Correction of this internal rotation is essential in the success of arthroplasty in patients with patellofemoral disease. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III study, It is a case control study.

Assessment of in vivo loading history of the patellofemoral joint: a study combining patellar position, tilt, alignment and bone SPECT/CT.

PURPOSE: The current study investigates whether patella height and tilt or leg alignment influence the intensity values as well as the distribution pattern of single photon emission computerized tomography/computerized tomography (SPECT/CT) tracer uptake in the patellofemoral joint. METHODS: 99mTc-HDP-SPECT/CT and radiographs of consecutive 84 knees were prospectively obtained. Lateral radiographs were analyzed in terms of patellar height, Insall-Salvati index and modified Insall-Salvati index. Skyline views were analyzed for Laurin's lateral patellofemoral angle. On long-leg radiographs, the mechanical leg alignment was classified as varus, valgus or neutral. SPECT/CT was analyzed for each anatomical region using a previously validated SPECT/CT localization and grading algorithm. Mean, standard deviation, minimum and maximum of grading for each area of the localization scheme were recorded. Nonparametric Spearman's correlations were used to correlate patellar height, lateral patellar angle and leg alignment with the tracer uptake intensity. Chi-square statistics were used for categorical data (p < 0.05). RESULTS: A patella baja correlated significantly with higher SPECT/CT tracer uptake in all patellar and lateral femoral regions (p < 0.001). A higher lateral patellar tilt correlated significantly with higher tracer uptake in the superior lateral femoral parts and the tibial tubercle. In mechanically varus aligned knees, there was significantly higher SPECT/CT tracer uptake on the medial and in valgus knees on the lateral part of the patellofemoral joint (p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: As the intensity and distribution of the SPECT/CT significantly correlated with patella baja and patellar tilt, SPECT/CT might be considered as imaging modality for evaluating patients with patellofemoral disorders and for follow-up of patients after patellofemoral realignment procedures. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Diagnostic study, Level II.

Prevalence of abnormal patellofemoral congruence in elite American football players and association with quadriceps isokinetic testing.

Abnormal patellofemoral joint alignment has been discussed as a potential risk factor for patellofemoral disorders and can impact the longevity of any elite athlete's career. The prevalence of abnormal patellofemoral congruence in elite American football athletes is similar to the general population and does not have a relationship with quadriceps isokinetic testing. A total of 125 athletes (220 knees) from the 2011 National Football League (NFL) Combine database who had radiographic and isokinetic studies were reviewed. Congruence angles (CA) and lateral patellofemoral angles (LPA) were calculated on a Merchant radiographic view. Isokinetic testing was used to determine quadriceps-to-hamstring strength (Q/H) ratio and side-to-side deficits. The relationships between abnormal CA and LPA with Q/H ratios, side-to-side deficits, and body mass index (BMI) were examined in separate logistic regression models. A Chi-square test was used to examine the association between CA and player position. Of all, 26.8% of the knees (95% CI: 21.1-33.2%) had an abnormal CA. Knees with normal CA (n = 161) did not significantly differ from those with an abnormal CA (n = 59) in Q/H ratios (mean: 0.699 vs. 0.728, p = 0.19) or side-to-side quadriceps deficits (mean: 4.0 vs. 1.24, p = 0.45). For each point increase in BMI, the odds ratio (OR) of abnormal congruence increased by 11.4% (p = 0.002). Of all the knees, 4.1% (95% CI: 1.9-7.6%) had an abnormal LPA, and this was not associated with Q/H ratios (p = 0.13). For each point increase in BMI, the odds of abnormal LPA increased by 16% (p = 0.036). CA abnormality had much higher odds of having an abnormal LPA (OR: 5.96, p = 0.014). We found that abnormal patellofemoral radiographic alignment in elite American football players is relatively common and there was no association with isokinetic testing.

A statistical shape model of trochlear dysplasia of the knee.

BACKGROUND: Trochlear dysplasia is known as the primary predisposing factor for patellar dislocation. Current methods to describe trochlear dysplasia are mainly qualitative or based on a limited number of discrete measurements. The purpose of this study is to apply statistical shape analysis to take the full geometrical complexity of trochlear dysplasia into account. METHODS: Statistical shape analysis was applied to 20 normal and 20 trochlear dysplastic distal femur models, including the cartilage. RESULTS: This study showed that the trochlea was anteriorized, proximalized and lateralized and that the mediolateral width and the notch width were decreased in the trochlear dysplastic femur compared to the normal femur. The first three principal components of the trochlear dysplastic femurs, accounting for 79.7% of the total variation, were size, sulcus angle and notch width. Automated classification of the trochlear dysplastic and normal femora achieved a sensitivity of 85% and a specificity of 95%. CONCLUSIONS: This study shows that shape analysis is an outstanding method to visualise the location and magnitude of shape abnormalities. Improvement of automated classification and subtyping within the trochlear dysplastic group are expected when larger training sets are used. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Classification of trochlear dysplasia, especially borderline cases may be facilitated by automated classification. Furthermore, the identification of a decreased notch width in association with an increased sulcus angle can also contribute to the diagnosis of trochlear dysplasia.

Correlation between trochlear dysplasia and the notch index.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the correlation between trochlear dysplasia and the notch index. METHODS: Magnetic resonance images (MRI) of 95 knees in 54 male and 36 female patients aged 4 to 74 (mean, 28) years were reviewed by 2 musculoskeletal radiologists. Standard MRI sequences were used. Based on the Dejour classification of trochlear dysplasia, the knees were classified into normal or types A, B, C, and D. A notch index of <0.2 was considered narrow. Normal knees and knees with trochlear dysplasia were compared. RESULTS: 60 of the 95 knees had trochlear dysplasia, of which 39 were Dejour type A, 13 were type B, 7 were type C, and one was type D. Dejour types B, C, and D were combined as non-type A. Inter-observer agreement in assessing the notch index was good (Kappa=0.6). The mean notch indices in normal knees and knees with trochlear dysplasia were comparable (0.161 vs. 0.157, p=0.18), as were in Dejour type A and non-type A knees (0.154 vs. 0.160, p=0.54) and in Dejour types A, B, C, and D knees (0.154 vs. 0.165 vs 0.153 vs. 0.2, p=0.17-0.7). The rate of ACL injuries was similar in patients with normal knees and those with type-A trochlear dysplasia. A low notch index (narrow notch) was not associated with ACL injury. CONCLUSION: The notch index and trochlear morphology are 2 independent entities. A narrow notch does not imply a shallow trochlear grove.

Correlation between trochlear dysplasia and anterior cruciate ligament injury.

PURPOSE. To evaluate the correlation between trochlear dysplasia and anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury METHODS. Magnetic resonance images (MRIs) of 95 knees in 54 males and 36 females aged 4 to 74 (mean, 28) years who had anterior knee pain and suspected ligamentous injury were reviewed. The MRIs were independently reviewed by 2 musculoskeletal radiologists on 2 occasions. According to the Dejour classification, trochlear dysplasia was classified into types A, B, C, and D. Intra-articular injuries/ disorders of the patients included patellofemoral osteoarthritis, chondromalacia patella, meniscal tears, and ligamentous injuries. Intra- and inter-observer variability was calculated. RESULTS. 58 of the knees had trochlear dysplasia, 38 of which were Dejour type A. The intra- and inter-observer variability was good to excellent (Kappa=0.76-1). ACL tear was the most common injury (n=13). No ACL injury occurred in patients without trochlear dysplasia. The odds of having sustained an ACL injury were 8.8 fold greater in Dejour type-A knees than in non-type-A knees (p=0.023). CONCLUSION. Dejour type-A trochlear dysplasia was associated with ACL injuries.

Association of trochlear dysplasia with degenerative abnormalities in the knee: data from the Osteoarthritis Initiative.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate trochlear morphology as a potential risk factor for patellofemoral osteoarthritis, determined by morphological and quantitative measurements of cartilage degeneration using 3-T magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the knee. MATERIALS AND METHODS: MRI of the right knees of 304 randomly selected subjects, aged 45-60 years, from the Osteoarthritis Initiative (OAI) progression cohort were screened for trochlear dysplasia, defined by an abnormal trochlear depth. Out of 304 subjects, n = 85 demonstrated a shallow trochlea (depth ≤3 mm; 28 %). In these, and also in a random sample of controls with normal trochlear depth (n = 50), the facet ratio and the sulcus angle were calculated and knee structural abnormalities were assessed by using a modified Whole Organ MR Imaging Score (WORMS). Cartilage segmentation was performed and T2 relaxation times and patellar cartilage volume were determined. ANOVA and multivariate regression models were used for statistical analysis of the association of MRI structural measures and trochlear morphology. RESULTS: Knees with a shallow trochlea showed higher patellofemoral degeneration (WORMS mean ± standard deviation, 11.2 ± 0.5 versus 5.7 ± 0.6; multivariate regression, P < 0.001) and lower patellar cartilage volume than controls (900 ± 664 mm(3) versus 1,671 ± 671 mm(3); P < 0.001). Knees with an abnormal medial-to-lateral facet ratio (<0.4) showed increased patellofemoral WORMS scores (12.3 ± 0.9 versus 8.3 ± 0.5; P < 0.001). Knees with an abnormal sulcus angle (>170°) also showed increased WORMS scores (12.2 ± 1.1 versus 8.6 ± 0.6; P = 0.003). T2 values at the patella were significantly lower in the dysplasia group with a shallow trochlea. However, significance was lost after adjustment for cartilage volume (P = 0.673). CONCLUSION: Trochlear dysplasia, defined by a shallow trochlea, was associated with higher WORMS scores and lower cartilage volume, indicating more advanced osteoarthritis at the patellofemoral joint.

The role of trochleoplasty in patellofemoral instability.

The management of recurrent patellofemoral instability is challenging. The etiology of the instability is multifactorial, requiring the examination of lower limb alignment, relationship of the patella to the trochlear groove and tibial tubercle, and the soft-tissue restraints. As initial surgical efforts were aimed at isolated soft-tissue repair or reconstruction, patients often had continued instability. Thus, a heightened interest in trochleoplasty has occurred as trochlear dysplasia has been found in 85% of patients with recurrent instability. Different types of trochleoplasties have been developed depending on the type of dysplasia including the trochlear lengthening osteotomy, the proximal open trochleoplasty, the deepening trochleoplasty, and the arthroscopic deepening trochleoplasty. The techniques, benefits, and results of these trochleoplasties will be presented in this review.