L'auto-expérimentation athlétique du docteur Fernand Lagrange (1880-1900).

This article examines the efforts of Dr. Fernand Lagrange to establish the study of the physiology of exercise on a scientific basis. As a sports enthusiast and physician, Lagrande was inspired by the efforts of Claude Bernard and Étienne-Jules Marey to use his own body as a source of experimentation and methodical observation. Lagrande's self-experimentation pioneered the physiology of exercise, but his primary goal was to improve human health by demonstrating the benefits that could be derived from regular physical exercise. His observations of other human subjects, be they farmers, schoolchildren, students, or sportsmen, were always driven by the "moral motivation" for his new science to realize a more perfect knowledge of its object.

Cet article a pour but de dévoiler l'origine des travaux de Fernand Lagrange et la méthodologie qu'il a mise en place, à une époque où la physiologie des exercices corporels n'en était qu'à ses balbutiements. Il en ressort que ce docteur sportsman a éprouvé personnellement les choses avant de les éclairer scientifiquement. Dans la veine impulsée par Claude Bernard ou Étienne-Jules Marey, il a pratiqué ce que l'on est en droit d'appeler une auto-expérimentation athlétique. Précurseur incontestable et incontesté de la physiologie des exercices du corps, son objectif premier fut d'améliorer la santé de l'être humain en démontrant tous les bénéfices que ce dernier pouvait tirer d'une pratique physique régulière. Il a toujours porté un regard sur les autres, qu'ils soient paysans, écoliers, étudiants ou sportifs, avec une « motivation morale ¼, et ce en vue de fonder son intervention avec une parfaite connaissance de son objet.

Self-Experiments with Psychoactive Substances: A Historical Perspective.

The purpose of this chapter is to highlight the rich tradition of self-experiments (SEs) with psychoactive substances carried out by scientists and therapists for more than a century. Scientifically inspired controlled SEs dominated until the end of the twentieth century, when ethical requirements minimized controlled SEs and "wild" SEs expanded particularly with the emergence of new psychoactive substances. The review focuses on laughing gas (nitrous oxide), cannabis, cocaine, hallucinogens, entactogens, and dissociative hallucinogens. This is due to the fact that substances that induce "complex" effects such as alteration of space/time experience, ego dissolution, and increased feelings and insights (e.g., hallucinogens, entactogens) represent by far the majority of SEs, whereas SEs with substances inducing "simple" effects such as euphoria, anxiolysis, dissociation, or emotional blunting (e.g., cocaine, opioids) are much rarer or even absent (e.g., benzodiazepines). Complex drug effects are much harder to describe, thus allowing SEs to fulfill a more important function.SEs with psychoactive drugs appeared to emerge in the mid-eighteenth century, which triggered a long-standing tradition throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth century. SEs have been de facto performed for a variety of reasons, ranging from establishing scientific knowledge and gaining philosophical insights to compensating for personal deficits. Self-experimenters can be divided into two general types. Besides their scientific intentions, "exploratory" self-experimenters intend to expand awareness and insight, whereas "compensatory" self-experimenters might aim for coping with psychiatric symptoms or personality deficits. Scientific limitations of SEs are obvious when compared to double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trials. Whereas the former might lead to more "realistic" detailed description of subjective effects, the latter lead to more solid results in respect to objectively measurable "average" effects. Possible adverse effects of SEs were identified that resulted in loss of scientific objectivity and decreased control over substance use and addiction, development of isolation, problematic group dynamics, and "social autism."

Daniel Alcides Carrión: una visión funcional / Daniel Alcides Carrión: a functional view

Se hace la consideración de Daniel Alcides Carrión, héroe de la Medicina peruana y de la Nación, desde el punto de vista fenomenológico, tanto filosófico como psicológico, considerando más la visión social que un fenómeno individual, bajo las influencias de las corrientes de pensamiento vigentes a fines del siglo XIX. Tanto el romanticismo como el positivismo fueron de origen europeo, pero influenciaron definitivamente en el Perú en la época de Carrión y, seguramente, tuvieron que ver en gran medida con su decisión a la autoexperimentación. Se hace especial mención a su rol pionero como investigador clínico y se remarca la necesidad de completar aquellos acontecimientos que formaron parte del funcionamiento del héroe en el tiempo histórico correspondiente...

A close vision is directed towards Daniel Alcides Carrión, hero of the Peruvian Medicine and the nation, from the point of view of phenomenology, both philosophical and psychological, considering more like a social vision that an individual phenomenon, under the influence of currents of thought prevailing at the late nineteenth century. Both romanticism and positivism were of European origin but definitely influenced in Peru at the time of Carrion and certainly had largely to do with his decision to self-experimentation. Special mention to its pioneering role is made as a clinical researcher and the need to complete those events that were part of the operation of the hero in the corresponding historical period...

"They Sweat for Science": The Harvard Fatigue Laboratory and Self-Experimentation in American Exercise Physiology.

In many scientific fields, the practice of self-experimentation waned over the course of the twentieth century. For exercise physiologists working today, however, the practice of self-experimentation is alive and well. This paper considers the role of the Harvard Fatigue Laboratory and its scientific director, D. Bruce Dill, in legitimizing the practice of self-experimentation in exercise physiology. Descriptions of self-experimentation are drawn from papers published by members of the Harvard Fatigue Lab. Attention is paid to the ethical and practical justifications for self-experimentation in both the lab and the field. Born out of the practical, immediate demands of fatigue protocols, self-experimentation performed the long-term, epistemological function of uniting physiological data across time and space, enabling researchers to contribute to a general human biology program.

Daniel Alcides Carrion (1857-1885) and a history of medical martyrdom.

Daniel Carrion, a sixth-year medical student, died while investigating the effects of self-inoculation of the causative organism of Oroya Fever and Bartonellosis and thereby contributed to understanding of the disease before the organisms had been identified.

[Human bartonellosis: before and after Daniel Alcides Carrion]. / Bartonelosis humana: antes y después de Daniel Alcides Carrión.

This is a review of bibliographic aspects associated to the knowledge about human bartonelosis before and after the death of Daniel Alcides Carrion. Emphasis is placed on stimulus in the development of medical research in Peru by the self-inoculation and subsequent death of Carrion especially in relation to human bartonellosis, conducted by Peruvian researchers and others around the world. The review includes the basic area of knowledge about the bacteria that causes the illness, the host response to infection as well as the biphasic behavior of the disease. The revised bibliography includes contributions to the knowledge of the disease in the last 100 years, now known with the eponym "Carrion's disease".

Bartonelosis humana: antes y después de Daniel Alcides Carrión / Human bartonellosis: before and after Daniel Alcides Carrion

La presente es una revisión de los aspectos bibliográficos relacionados con el conocimiento de la bartonelosis humana antes y después de la muerte de Daniel Alcides Carrión. Se enfatiza el estímulo que significó el sacrificio de Carrión en el desarrollo de la investigación médica en el Perú, en especial en lo referente a la bartonelosis humana, realizada por investigadores peruanos y de otras partes del mundo. La revisión incluye al área básica del conocimiento sobre la bacteria causante del proceso mórbido, la respuesta del huésped a la infección así como en el comportamiento bifásico de la enfermedad. La bibliografía revisada incluye aportes al conocimiento de la enfermedad, conocida hoy con el epónimo de “Enfermedad de Carrión”, a lo largo de más de un siglo de historia.

This is a review of bibliographic aspects associated to the knowledge about human bartonelosis before and after the death of Daniel Alcides Carrion. Emphasis is placed on stimulus in the development of medical research in Peru by the self-inoculation and subsequent death of Carrion especially in relation to human bartonellosis, conducted by Peruvian researchers and others around the world. The review includes the basic area of knowledge about the bacteria that causes the illness, the host response to infection as well as the biphasic behavior of the disease. The revised bibliography includes contributions to the knowledge of the disease in the last 100 years, now known with the eponym “Carrion’s disease”.

Personal knowledge and study participation.

Scientists in earlier times considered personal research participation an essential component of their work.Exposing themselves to untested interventions was seen as the most ethical way to gauge the human response to those interventions. The practice was also educational, for it generated useful information that helped researchers plan subsequent human studies.Self-experimentation was eventually replaced by more comprehensive ethical codes governing human research.But it is time to bring back the practice of self-experimentation, albeit in modified form. Through serving as a study subject, investigators and other research professionals can obtain valuable information about their work.

Alexander von Humboldt: galvanism, animal electricity, and self-experimentation part 2: the electric eel, animal electricity, and later years.

After extensive experimentation during the 1790s, Alexander von Humboldt remained skeptical about "animal electricity" (and metallic electricity), writing instead about an ill-defined galvanic force. With his worldview and wishing to learn more, he studied electric eels in South America just as the new century began, again using his body as a scientific instrument in many of his experiments. As had been the case in the past and for many of the same reasons, some of his findings with the electric eel (and soon after, Italian torpedoes) seemed to argue against biological electricity. But he no longer used galvanic terminology when describing his electric fish experiments. The fact that he now wrote about animal electricity rather than a different "galvanic" force owed much to Alessandro Volta, who had come forth with his "pile" (battery) for multipling the physical and perceptable effects of otherwise weak electricity in 1800, while Humboldt was deep in South America. Humboldt probably read about and saw voltaic batteries in the United States in 1804, but the time he spent with Volta in 1805 was probably more significant in his conversion from a galvanic to an electrical framework for understanding nerve and muscle physiology. Although he did not continue his animal electricity research program after this time, Humboldt retained his worldview of a unified nature and continued to believe in intrinsic animal electricity. He also served as a patron to some of the most important figures in the new field of electrophysiology (e.g., Hermann Helmholtz and Emil du Bois-Reymond), helping to take the research that he had participated in to the next level.

Alexander von Humboldt: galvanism, animal electricity, and self-experimentation part 1: formative years, naturphilosophie, and galvanism.

During the 1790s, Alexander von Humboldt (1769-1859), who showed an early interest in many facets of natural philosophy and natural history, delved into the controversial subject of galvanism and animal electricity, hoping to shed light on the basic nature of the nerve force. He was motivated by his broad worldview, the experiments of Luigi Galvani, who favored animal electricity in more than a few specialized fishes, and the thinking of Alessandro Volta, who accepted specialized fish electricity but was not willing to generalize to other animals, thinking Galvani's frog experiments flawed by his use of metals. Differing from many German Naturphilosophen, who shunned "violent" experiments, the newest instruments, and detailed measurement, Humboldt conducted thousands of galvanic experiments on animals and animal parts, as well as many on his own body, some of which caused him great pain. He interpreted his results as supporting some but not all of the claims made by both Galvani and Volta. Notably, because of certain negative findings and phenomenological differences, he remained skeptical about the intrinsic animal force being qualitatively identical to true electricity. Hence, he referred to a "galvanic force," not animal electricity, in his letters and publications, a theoretical position he would abandon with Volta's help early in the new century.

El experimento de Daniel Alcides Carrión: Una historia real / Daniel Alcides Carrionïs experiment: A true history

El experimento de Daniel Alcides Carrión, ha sido analizado mayormente con poca objetividad, repitiéndose conceptos equivocados, con el fin de conocer la verdad, se realiza un análisis bas ndose en documentos escritos por Carrión, los testigos de su experimento y fuentes históricas de la época. Revelando lo siguiente: El experimento de Carrión fue un aporte para la ciencia, brindó la evidencia clínica de la teoría unicista de la bartonelosis producida por bartonella bacilliformis, aunque Carrión no diseñó ni demostró esta teoróa unicista, la demostración de esta teoría la realizaría Noguchi en 1926. Es probable que la enfermedad que haya tenido Carrión sea la bartonelosis humana producida por la bartonella bacilliformis, Carrión se equivocó al diseñar su experimento dado que ‚l creía que iba a desarrollar la fase benigna de esta infección, su aporte clínico de la teoria unicista de esta enfermedad fue un acto de serendipia. La Junta Médica postergó la transfusión sanguínea para experimentar en Carrión con inyecciones de ácido fénico endovenosas como tratamiento de su infeccón, siendo este tóxico antiséptico probablemente el precipitante de su muerte.

The Daniel Alcides Carrion's experiment has been analyzed mostly with little objectivity, repeating misconceptions, in order to know the truth, an analysis based on documents written by Carri¢n, witnesses of their experiment and historical sources of the time. Revealing the following: Carrion's experiment was a contribution to science, provided clinical evidence of unicist theory of bartonelosis caused by Bartonella bacilliformis, although Carri¢n not designed nor demonstrate this theory, demonstration of this theory would make Noguchi in 1926. It is likely that the disease was Carri¢n was human bartonelosis caused by Bartonella bacilliformis, he was wrong to design your experiment because he believed it would develop benign phase of this infection, their clinical contribution of unicist theory was an act of serendipity. The medical board postponed blood transfusion because they wanted to experiment in Carri¢n as treatment for his infection, intravenous injections of phenic acid, being this treatment probably the cause of his death,