Inhibition of Schwann cell pannexin 1 attenuates neuropathic pain through the suppression of inflammatory responses.

BACKGROUND: Neuropathic pain is still a challenge for clinical treatment as a result of the comprehensive pathogenesis. Although emerging evidence demonstrates the pivotal role of glial cells in regulating neuropathic pain, the role of Schwann cells and their underlying mechanisms still need to be uncovered. Pannexin 1 (Panx 1), an important membrane channel for the release of ATP and inflammatory cytokines, as well as its activation in central glial cells, contributes to pain development. Here, we hypothesized that Schwann cell Panx 1 participates in the regulation of neuroinflammation and contributes to neuropathic pain. METHODS: A mouse model of chronic constriction injury (CCI) in CD1 adult mice or P0-Cre transgenic mice, and in vitro cultured Schwann cells were used. Intrasciatic injection with Panx 1 blockers or the desired virus was used to knock down the expression of Panx 1. Mechanical and thermal sensitivity was assessed using Von Frey and a hot plate assay. The expression of Panx 1 was measured using qPCR, western blotting, and immunofluorescence. The production of cytokines was monitored through qPCR and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Panx1 channel activity was detected by ethidium bromide (EB) uptake. RESULTS: CCI induced persistent neuroinflammatory responses and upregulation of Panx 1 in Schwann cells. Intrasciatic injection of Panx 1 blockers, carbenoxolone (CBX), probenecid, and Panx 1 mimetic peptide (10Panx) effectively reduced mechanical and heat hyperalgesia. Probenecid treatment of CCI-induced mice significantly reduced Panx 1 expression in Schwann cells, but not in dorsal root ganglion (DRG). In addition, Panx 1 knockdown in Schwann cells with Panx 1 shRNA-AAV in P0-Cre mice significantly reduced CCI-induced neuropathic pain. To determine whether Schwann cell Panx 1 participates in the regulation of neuroinflammation and contributes to neuropathic pain, we evaluated its effect in LPS-treated Schwann cells. We found that inhibition of Panx 1 via CBX and Panx 1-siRNA effectively attenuated the production of selective cytokines, as well as its mechanism of action being dependent on both Panx 1 channel activity and its expression. CONCLUSION: In this study, we found that CCI-related neuroinflammation correlates with Panx 1 activation in Schwann cells, indicating that inhibition of Panx 1 channels in Schwann cells reduces neuropathic pain through the suppression of neuroinflammatory responses.

The Anti-Epileptic Effects of Carbenoxolone In Vitro and In Vivo.

Gap junctions (GJs) are intercellular junctions that allow the direct transfer of ions and small molecules between neighboring cells, and GJs between astrocytes play an important role in the development of various pathologies of the brain, including regulation of the pathological neuronal synchronization underlying epileptic seizures. Recently, we found that a pathological change is observed in astrocytes during the ictal and interictal phases of 4-aminopyridin (4-AP)-elicited epileptic activity in vitro, which was correlated with neuronal synchronization and extracellular epileptic electrical activity. This finding raises the question: Does this signal depend on GJs between astrocytes? In this study we investigated the effect of the GJ blocker, carbenoxolone (CBX), on epileptic activity in vitro and in vivo. Based on the results obtained, we came to the conclusion that the astrocytic syncytium formed by GJ-associated astrocytes, which is responsible for the regulation of potassium, affects the formation of epileptic activity in astrocytes in vitro and epileptic seizure onset. This effect is probably an important, but not the only, mechanism by which CBX suppresses epileptic activity. It is likely that the mechanisms of selective inhibition of GJs between astrocytes will show important translational benefits in anti-epileptic therapies.

Comparative effect of vitamin D3 and carbenoxolone treatments in metabolic syndrome rats.

Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is a cluster of cardiovascular risk factors including central obesity, hypertension, insulin resistance, dyslipidemia, and hyperglyemia. MetS is found to be a positive predictor of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. The present study was planned to test the efficacy of vitamin D3 supplementation as compared with cortisol inhibition on MetS parameters. Wistar rats were allocated into four groups: control, untreated MetS, and MetS treated with either vitamin D3 (10 µg/kg) or carbenoxolone (50 mg/kg). MetS was induced by combination of high-fat diet and oral fructose. After the induction period (8 weeks), MetS was confirmed, and treatment modalities started for a further 4 weeks. Compared with untreated MetS, vitamin D3- and carbenoxolone-treated rats showed significant reduction in blood pressure, body mass index, Lee index, waist circumference, retroperitoneal fat, and improvement of dyslipidemia. Meanwhile, treatment with carbenoxolone significantly lowered the elevated liver enzymes, and vitamin D3 resulted in improved insulin sensitivity, enhanced glucose uptake by muscles, and replenished glycogen content in the liver and muscles near control levels. In conclusion, although treatment with vitamin D3 or carbenoxolone reduced the risk factors associated with MetS, vitamin D3 was effective in ameliorating insulin resistance which is the hallmark of MetS.

The role of connexin43 in neuropathic pain induced by spinal cord injury.

Neuropathic pain is caused by the damage or dysfunction of the nervous system. In many neuropathic pain models, there is an increase in the number of gap junction (GJ) channels, especially the upregulation of the expression of connexin43 (Cx43), leading to the secretion of various types of cytokines and involvement in the formation of neuropathic pain. GJs are widely distributed in mammalian organs and tissues, and Cx43 is the most abundant connexin (Cx) in mammals. Astrocytes are the most abundant glial cell type in the central nervous system (CNS), which mainly express Cx43. More importantly, GJs play an important role in regulating cell metabolism, signaling, and function. Many existing literatures showed that Cx43 plays an important role in the nervous system, especially in the CNS under normal and pathological conditions. However, many internal mechanisms have not yet been thoroughly explored. In this review, we summarized the current understanding of the role and association of Cx and pannexin channels in neuropathic pain, especially after spinal cord injury, as well as some of our own insights and thoughts which suggest that Cx43 may become an emerging therapeutic target for future neuropathic pain, bringing new hope to patients.

TAT-Gap19 and Carbenoxolone Alleviate Liver Fibrosis in Mice.

Although a plethora of signaling pathways are known to drive the activation of hepatic stellate cells in liver fibrosis, the involvement of connexin-based communication in this process remains elusive. Connexin43 expression is enhanced in activated hepatic stellate cells and constitutes the molecular building stone of hemichannels and gap junctions. While gap junctions support intercellular communication, and hence the maintenance of liver homeostasis, hemichannels provide a circuit for extracellular communication and are typically opened by pathological stimuli, such as oxidative stress and inflammation. The present study was set up to investigate the effects of inhibition of connexin43-based hemichannels and gap junctions on liver fibrosis in mice. Liver fibrosis was induced by administration of thioacetamide to Balb/c mice for eight weeks. Thereafter, mice were treated for two weeks with TAT-Gap19, a specific connexin43 hemichannel inhibitor, or carbenoxolone, a general hemichannel and gap junction inhibitor. Subsequently, histopathological analysis was performed and markers of hepatic damage and functionality, oxidative stress, hepatic stellate cell activation and inflammation were evaluated. Connexin43 hemichannel specificity of TAT-Gap19 was confirmed in vitro by fluorescence recovery after photobleaching analysis and the measurement of extracellular release of adenosine-5'-triphosphate. Upon administration to animals, both TAT-Gap19 and carbenoxolone lowered the degree of liver fibrosis accompanied by superoxide dismutase overactivation and reduced production of inflammatory proteins, respectively. These results support a role of connexin-based signaling in the resolution of liver fibrosis, and simultaneously demonstrate the therapeutic potential of TAT-Gap19 and carbenoxolone in the treatment of this type of chronic liver disease.

Carbenoxolone as a novel therapy for attenuation of cancer-induced bone pain.

Pain is a major complication for patients with cancer significantly compromising their quality of life. Current treatment is far from optimal and particularly bone-related cancer pain poses an increasing clinical and socioeconomical problem. Connexins, key proteins in cell-cell communication, have the potential to affect cancer-induced bone pain at multiple levels, including nociceptive signaling and bone degradation. This study tested the analgesic potential of carbenoxolone, a broad-acting connexin blocker, in a mouse model of cancer-induced bone pain. In addition, a pharmacological approach was used to elucidate the underlying mechanisms using the 2 specific blockers Gap27 and Gap26. Compared with vehicle treatment, chronic systemic administration of 20 or 40 mg/kg carbenoxolone caused a significantly later onset and attenuation of movement-evoked and on-going pain, assessed with limb use and weight bearing, respectively. In addition, the carbenoxolone-treated groups demonstrated a significant delay in time to reach the humane endpoint. Acute intrathecal administration of Gap27 significantly attenuated both limb use and weight bearing, whereas Gap26 had a less pronounced effect. Carbenoxolone treatment had a minor effect on the bone degradation in the early phase of disease progression, whereas no effect was observed in the late phase. Surprisingly, connexin43 was downregulated in the cancer-bearing animals compared with shams. The results suggest that connexins are involved in cancer-induced bone pain, and that carbenoxolone could be a novel analgesic treatment for the pain state.

Acute anti-obesity effects of intracerebroventricular 11ß-HSD1 inhibitor administration in diet-induced obese mice.

The hypothalamus is the regulatory centre of both appetite and energy balance and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress in the hypothalamus is involved in the pathogenesis of obesity. Recently, inhibition of 11 ß hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type1 (11ß-HSD1) was reported to have an anti-obesity effect by reducing fat mass. However, the link between the role of 11ß-HSD1 in the hypothalamus and obesity has yet to be determined. In the present study, embryonal primary hypothalamic neurones and high-fat diet (HFD) fed mice were used to investigate the anorexigenic effects of 11ß-HSD1 inhibitors both in vitro and in vivo. In hypothalamic neurones, carbenoxolone (a non selecitve 11ß-HSD inhibitor) alleviated ER stress and ER stress-induced neuropeptide alterations. In HFD mice, i.c.v. administration of carbenoxolone or KR67500 (nonselective and selective 11ß-HSD1 inhibitors, respectively) was associated with less weight gain compared to control mice for 24 hours after treatment, presumably by reducing food intake. Furthermore, glucose regulated protein (Grp78), spliced X-box binding protein (Xbp-1s), c/EBP homologous protein (chop) and ER DnaJ homologue protein (Erdj4) expression was decreased in the hypothalami of mice administrated 11ß-HSD1 inhibitors compared to controls. Conversely, the phosphorylation of protein kinase B (PKB/Akt), signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (Stat3), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK/ERK) and S6 kinase1 (S6K1) in the hypothalamus was induced more in mice treated using the same regimes. In conclusion, acute 11ß-HSD1 inhibition in the hypothalamus could reduce food intake by decreasing ER stress and increasing insulin, leptin, and mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) signalling.

Topical 11ß-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenase Type 1 Inhibition Corrects Cutaneous Features of Systemic Glucocorticoid Excess in Female Mice.

Glucocorticoid (GC) excess drives multiple cutaneous adverse effects, including skin thinning and poor wound healing. The ubiquitously expressed enzyme 11ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (11ß-HSD1) activates mouse corticosterone from 11-dehydrocorticosterone (and human cortisol from cortisone). We previously demonstrated elevated 11ß-HSD1 activity during mouse wound healing, but the interplay between cutaneous 11ß-HSD1 and systemic GC excess is unexplored. Here, we examined effects of 11ß-HSD1 inhibition by carbenoxolone (CBX) in mice treated with corticosterone (CORT) or vehicle for 6 weeks. Mice were treated bidaily with topical CBX or vehicle (VEH) 7 days before wounding and during wound healing. CORT mice displayed skin thinning and impaired wound healing but also increased epidermal integrity. 11ß-HSD1 activity was elevated in unwounded CORT skin and was inhibited by CBX. CORT mice treated with CBX displayed 51%, 59%, and 100% normalization of wound healing, epidermal thickness, and epidermal integrity, respectively. Gene expression studies revealed normalization of interleukin 6, keratinocyte growth factor, collagen 1, collagen 3, matrix metalloproteinase 9, and tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinase 4 by CBX during wound healing. Importantly, proinflammatory cytokine expression and resolution of inflammation were unaffected by 11ß-HSD1 inhibition. CBX did not regulate skin function or wound healing in the absence of CORT. Our findings demonstrate that 11ß-HSD1 inhibition can limit the cutaneous effects of GC excess, which may improve the safety profile of systemic steroids and the prognosis of chronic wounds.

Quinine and carbenoxolone enhance the anticonvulsant activity of some classical antiepileptic drugs.

Objective Quinine (QUIN) and carbenoxolone (CNX) elicit anticonvulsant effects typically characterized by the reduction of the epileptiform activity as well as changes in behavioral parameters related to seizures. Therefore, the aim of this study was to analyze the effects of these molecules on the anticonvulsant activity of some classical antiepileptic drugs. Methods Male Wistar rats were used. Valproate (VPA), phenytoin (PHT), or carbamazepine (CBZ) was administered at sub-therapeutic doses for intraperitoneal via. Subsequently, animals were administered with a single dose of QUIN or CNX. The anticonvulsant activity was evaluated with the maximal electroshock (MES) test and pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) administration. Additionally, the plasma levels of CBZ were determined using an HPLC method. Results All the control rats presented generalized tonic-clonic seizures after the MES test or the administration of PTZ. For the MES test, all of the antiepileptic drugs increased their anticonvulsant activity when were co-administered with QUIN. For the PTZ test, only the combination CBZ plus QUIN significantly increased the percentage of protection against the generalized tonic-clonic seizures. The co-administration of CBZ plus QUIN resulted in an augmented concentration of CBZ in plasma. Discussion The present study shows that QUIN and CNX enhance the anticonvulsant activity of some classical antiepileptic drugs. However, only the combination CBZ/QUIN had significant effects on both MES and PTZ models. Such anticonvulsant activity could be attributed to increased levels of CBZ in plasma. We propose that these molecules could improve the pharmacological actions of antiepileptic drugs administered at sub-therapeutic doses.

Carbenoxolone Could Deteriorate Streptozotocin-induced Diabetes through Induction of Heat Shock Protein 70 and IFN-γ in C57BL/6 Mice.

Type 1 diabetes (T1D), a spontaneous autoimmune disease, is associated with destruction of insulin-producing ß-cells in the pancreas. Since some heat shock proteins (HSP), such as HSP70 exert a protective effect in both tissues and cells, the present study was conducted to elucidate the effects of carbenoxolone (CBX) as an HSP70 inducer on T1D. The disease was induced in male C57BL/6 mice using streptozotocin (STZ) and subjects were allocated to therapeutic 1 and therapeutic 2 groups, as well as negative and positive control groups. The treated mice (therapeutic 1 and therapeutic 2 groups) received 50 mg/kg CBX intraperitoneally every 24 hours, in the therapeutic 1  group the drug was injected before and after disease induction whereas in the therapeutic 2 group the drug was injected only after disease induction. Serum fasting blood sugar (FBS) level, cytokines production (Interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), Interleukin 10 (IL-10), and IL-17), serum HSP70 level and CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ regulatory T cell (Treg) frequency measurements were outperformed 14 days after the last STZ injection. Our results showed that in the treated groups, serum HSP70, IFN-γ, and IL-17 levels were increased in contrast to the untreated groups. The IL-10 level was markedly decreased in comparison to untreated diabetic mice (p<0.05). Moreover, it was found that the frequency of Tregs in treated mice was lower in comparison to the untreated mice but the difference was not significant (p>0.05). Our results confirm that CBX might through HSP70 induction, followed by increasing IFN-γ level leads to suppression of IL-10 production in diabetic mice resulted in toxic effects on pancreatic islet beta cells and deteriorating of disease.

Inhibition of Alzheimer's amyloid-beta aggregation in-vitro by carbenoxolone: Insight into mechanism of action.

BACKGROUND: The major hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the formation of amyloid aggregates, which are formed due to improper folding of proteins leading to the aggregation of amyloid beta (Aß) 42 peptide. Inhibition of Aß 42 aggregation using a drug such as carbenoxolone (Cbx), which has already been stated as neuroprotective, appears to be an effective approach against AD. OBJECTIVE: The present study was designed to investigate the anti-fibrillation activity of Cbx against the Aß 42 aggregation. METHODS: The aggregation of Aß 42 peptide was observed by performing in-vitro studies and the propensity of aggregation of Aß 42 peptide was evaluated by the prediction of binding sites and amyloidogenic regions. The binding of Cbx in these binding sites was predicted by computational studies. RESULTS: Thioflavin-T (Th-T assay), congo red assay and circular dichroism (CD) analysis suggested significant inhibition of Aß 42 aggregation by Cbx. The propensity of aggregation of Aß 42 peptide was evaluated by the prediction of binding sites and amyloidogenic regions. The mechanism of anti-fibrillation activity of Cbx was elucidated by molecular docking and simulation studies and has been predicted to interact with amyloidogenic residues of Aß 42 peptides as well as fibrils. Cbx also interacts with residues involved in the stabilization of the oligomeric structure. CONCLUSION: These results project Cbx as a suitable candidate for the inhibition of Aß 42 aggregation and the therapeutic potential of Cbx against AD can further be studied using in-vivo experiments.

Effects of inhibiting connexin43 on expression of fibroblast growth factor in prolactinomas in rats.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of connexin43(Cx43) on basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) expression by inhibiting Cx43 expression in prolactinomas in rats. METHODS: An experimental rat model of prolactinoma induced by estradiol (E2) treatment was used. Gap junction inhibitor was applied in through the arachnoid space by injection of carbenoxolone (CBX). Cx43 and bFGF expression was examined by both western blotting, respectively. RESULTS: Pituitaries treated with E2 were hypertrophic, but this was reduced by CBX treatment. Estradiol induced Cx43 and bFGF expression, which decreased following CBX treatment. CONCLUSIONS: Altered Cx43 expression modulates bFGF expression, which correlates with prolactinoma development.

Analysis of the behavioral, cellular and molecular characteristics of pain in severe rodent spinal cord injury.

Human SCI is frequently associated with chronic pain that is severe and refractory to medical therapy. Most rodent models used to assess pain outcomes in SCI apply moderate injuries to lower thoracic spinal levels, whereas the majority of human lesions are severe in degree and occur at cervical or upper thoracic levels. To better model and understand mechanisms associated with chronic pain after SCI, we subjected adult rats to T3 severe compression or complete transection lesions, and examined pain-related behaviors for three months. Within one week after injury, rats developed consistent forepaw pain-related behaviors including increased spontaneous lifts, tactile allodynia and cold sensitivity that persisted for three months. Place escape avoidance testing confirmed that withdrawal of the forepaws from a von Frey stimulus represented active pain-related aversion. Spontaneous and evoked pain-related measures were attenuated by gabapentin, further indicating that these behaviors reflect development of pain. Spinal level of injury was relevant: rats with T11 severe SCI did not exhibit forepaw pain-related behaviors. Immunoblotting and immunofluorescence of C6-C8 spinal dorsal horn, reflecting sensory innervation of the forepaw, revealed: 1) expansion of CGRP immunoreactivity in lamina I/II; 2) increased GAP-43 expression; and 3) increased IBA1, GFAP and connexin-43 expression. These findings indicate that aberrant pain fiber sprouting and gliopathy occur after severe SCI. Notably, satellite glial cells (SGCs) in C6-C8 DRGs exhibited increases in GFAP and connexin-43, suggesting ongoing peripheral sensitization. Carbenoxolone, a gap junction inhibitor, and specific peptide inhibitors of connexin-43, ameliorated established tactile allodynia after severe SCI. Collectively, severe T3 SCI successfully models persistent pain states and could constitute a useful model system for examining candidate translational pain therapies after SCI.

Unilateral microinjection of carbenoxolone into the pontis caudalis nucleus inhibits the pentylenetetrazole-induced epileptiform activity in rats.

Pontine reticular formation (PRF) is involved in the generation and maintenance of generalized epileptic seizures. Carbenoxolone (CBX) is a gap junction blocker with anticonvulsant properties. Therefore, the present study was designed to explore the effects of CBX microinjected into the pontis caudalis nucleus (PnC) on generalized tonic-clonic seizures (GTCS) and epileptiform activity induced by pentylenetetrazole (PTZ). All control rats presented GTCS after a single dose of PTZ. The microinjection of CBX into the PnC reduced the GTCS incidence induced by PTZ. Moreover, the CBX significantly increased the latency to the first myoclonic jerk. Additionally, CBX significantly decreased the spectral power and the amplitude of the epileptiform activity induced by PTZ. By contrast, the microinjection of a gap junction opener (trimethylamine) did not cause anticonvulsant effects and even increased the duration of the GTCS. These findings suggest that the PnC is a particular nucleus where the CBX could exert its action mechanisms and elicit anticonvulsant effects.

Decreased fast ripples in the hippocampus of rats with spontaneous recurrent seizures treated with carbenoxolone and quinine.

BACKGROUND: In models of temporal lobe epilepsy and in patients with this pathology, high frequency oscillations called fast ripples (FRs, 250-600 Hz) can be observed. FRs are considered potential biomarkers for epilepsy and, in the light of many in vitro and in silico studies, we thought that electrical synapses mediated by gap junctions might possibly modulate FRs in vivo. METHODS: Animals with spontaneous recurrent seizures induced by pilocarpine administration were implanted with movable microelectrodes in the right anterior and posterior hippocampus to evaluate the effects of gap junction blockers administered in the entorhinal cortex. The effects of carbenoxolone (50 nmoles) and quinine (35 pmoles) on the mean number of spontaneous FR events (occurrence of FRs), as well as on the mean number of oscillation cycles per FR event and their frequency, were assessed using a specific algorithm to analyze FRs in intracranial EEG recordings. RESULTS: We found that these gap junction blockers decreased the mean number of FRs and the mean number of oscillation cycles per FR event in the hippocampus, both during and at different times after carbenoxolone and quinine administration. CONCLUSION: These data suggest that FRs may be modulated by gap junctions, although additional experiments in vivo will be necessary to determine the precise role of gap junctions in this pathological activity associated with epileptogenesis.

HIS-388, a novel orally active and long-acting 11ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 inhibitor, ameliorates insulin sensitivity and glucose intolerance in diet-induced obesity and nongenetic type 2 diabetic murine models.

11ß-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (11ß-HSD1) is considered a potential therapeutic target in the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus. In this study, we investigated the pharmacological properties of HIS-388 (N-[(1R,2s,3S,5s,7s)-5-hydroxyadamantan-2-yl]-3-(pyridin-2-yl) isoxazole-4-carboxamide), a newly synthesized 11ß-HSD1 inhibitor, using several mouse models. In cortisone pellet-implanted mice in which hypercortisolism and hyperinsulinemia occur, single administration of HIS-388 exhibited potent and prolonged suppression of plasma cortisol and lowered plasma insulin levels. These effects were more potent than those achieved using the same dose of other 11ß-HSD1 inhibitors (carbenoxolone and compound 544 [3-[(1s,3s)-adamantan-1-yl]-6,7,8,9-tetrahydro-5H-[1,2,4]triazolo[4,3-a]azepine]), indicating that HIS-388 potently and continuously suppresses 11ß-HSD1 enzyme activity in vivo. In diet-induced obese mice, HIS-388 significantly decreased fasting blood glucose, plasma insulin concentration, and homeostasis model assessment-insulin resistance score, and ameliorated insulin sensitivity. In addition, HIS-388 significantly reduced body weight and suppressed the elevation of blood glucose during the pyruvate tolerance test. In nongenetic type 2 diabetic mice with disease induced by a high-fat diet and low-dose streptozotocin, HIS-388 also significantly decreased postprandial blood glucose and plasma insulin levels and improved glucose intolerance. The effects of HIS-388 on glucose metabolism were indistinguishable from those of an insulin sensitizer, pioglitazone. Our results suggest that HIS-388 is a potent agent against type 2 diabetes. Moreover, amelioration of diabetic symptoms by HIS-388 was at least in part attributable to an antiobesity effect or improvement of hepatic insulin resistance. Therefore, potent and long-lasting inhibition of 11ß-HSD1 enzyme activity may be an effective approach for the treatment of type 2 diabetes and obesity-associated disease.

Pannexin 1: a novel participant in neuropathic pain signaling in the rat spinal cord.

Pannexin 1 (panx1) is a large-pore membrane channel expressed in many tissues of mammals, including neurons and glial cells. Panx1 channels are highly permeable to calcium and adenosine triphosphatase (ATP); on the other hand, they can be opened by ATP and glutamate, two crucial molecules for acute and chronic pain signaling in the spinal cord dorsal horn, thus suggesting that panx1 could be a key component for the generation of central sensitization during persistent pain. In this study, we examined the effect of three panx1 blockers, namely, 10panx peptide, carbenoxolone, and probenecid, on C-reflex wind-up activity and mechanical nociceptive behavior in a spared nerve injury neuropathic rat model involving sural nerve transection. In addition, the expression of panx1 protein in the dorsal horn of the ipsilateral lumbar spinal cord was measured in sural nerve-transected and sham-operated control rats. Sural nerve transection resulted in a lower threshold for C-reflex activation by electric stimulation of the injured hindpaw, together with persistent mechanical hypersensitivity to pressure stimuli applied to the paw. Intrathecal administration of the panx1 blockers significantly depressed the spinal C-reflex wind-up activity in both neuropathic and sham control rats, and decreased mechanical hyperalgesia in neuropathic rats without affecting the nociceptive threshold in sham animals. Western blotting showed that panx1 was similarly expressed in the dorsal horn of lumbar spinal cord from neuropathic and sham rats. The present results constitute the first evidence that panx1 channels play a significant role in the mechanisms underlying central sensitization in neuropathic pain.

The gastroprotective effects of Eugenia dysenterica (Myrtaceae) leaf extract: the possible role of condensed tannins.

We applied a taxonomic approach to select the Eugenia dysenterica (Myrtaceae) leaf extract, known in Brazil as "cagaita," and evaluated its gastroprotective effect. The ability of the extract or carbenoxolone to protect the gastric mucosa from ethanol/HCl-induced lesions was evaluated in mice. The contributions of nitric oxide (NO), endogenous sulfhydryl (SH) groups and alterations in HCl production to the extract's gastroprotective effect were investigated. We also determined the antioxidant activity of the extract and the possible contribution of tannins to the cytoprotective effect. The extract and carbenoxolone protected the gastric mucosa from ethanol/HCl-induced ulcers, and the former also decreased HCl production. The blockage of SH groups but not the inhibition of NO synthesis abolished the gastroprotective action of the extract. Tannins are present in the extract, which was analyzed by matrix assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI); the tannins identified by fragmentation pattern (MS/MS) were condensed type-B, coupled up to eleven flavan-3-ol units and were predominantly procyanidin and prodelphinidin units. Partial removal of tannins from the extract abolished the cytoprotective actions of the extract. The extract exhibits free-radical-scavenging activity in vitro, and the extract/FeCl3 sequence stained gastric surface epithelial cells dark-gray. Therefore, E. dysenterica leaf extract has gastroprotective effects that appear to be linked to the inhibition of HCl production, the antioxidant activity and the endogenous SH-containing compounds. These pleiotropic actions appear to be dependent on the condensed tannins contained in the extract, which bind to mucins in the gastric mucosa forming a protective coating against damaging agents. Our study highlights the biopharmaceutical potential of E. dysenterica.

Intrathecal carbenoxolone inhibits neuropathic pain and spinal wide-dynamic range neuronal activity in rats after an L5 spinal nerve injury.

Spinal glial gap junctions may play an important role in dorsal horn neuronal sensitization and neuropathic pain. In rats after an L5 spinal nerve ligation (SNL), we examined the effects of intrathecal injection of carbenoxolone (CBX), a gap junction decoupler, on neuropathic pain manifestations and on wide-dynamic range (WDR) neuronal activity in vivo. Intrathecal injection of CBX dose-dependently (0.1-50 µg, 10 µl) inhibited mechanical hypersensitivity in rats at 2-3 weeks post-SNL. However, the same doses of glycyrrhizic acid (an analogue of CBX that does not affect gap junctions) and mefloquine hydrochloride (a selective neuronal gap junction decoupler) were ineffective. Intrathecal CBX (5µg) also attenuated heat hypersensitivity in SNL rats. Further, rats did not develop tachyphylaxis to CBX-induced inhibition of mechanical hypersensitivity after repetitive drug treatments (25 µg/day) during days 14-16 post-SNL. Electrophysiological study in SNL rats showed that spinal topical application of CBX (100 µg, 50 µl), which mimics intrathecal drug administration, attenuated WDR neuronal responses to mechanical stimuli and to repetitive intracutaneous electrical stimuli (0.5 Hz) that induce windup, a short-form of activity-dependent neuronal sensitization. The current findings suggest that the inhibition of neuropathic pain manifestations by intrathecal injection of CBX in SNL rats may involve an inhibition of glial gap junctions and an attenuation of WDR neuronal activity in the dorsal horn.

Astrocytic p-connexin 43 regulates neuronal autophagy in the hippocampus following traumatic brain injury in rats.

Gap junctions are conductive channels formed by membrane proteins termed connexins, which permit the intercellular exchange of metabolites, ions and small molecules. Previous data demonstrated that traumatic brain injury (TBI) activates autophagy and increases microtubule­associated protein 1 light chain 3 (LC3) immunostaining predominantly in neurons. Although previous studies have identified several extracellular factors that modulate LC3 expression, knowledge of the regulatory network controlling LC3 in health and disease remains incomplete. The aim of the present study was to assess whether gap junctions control the in vivo expression of LC3 in TBI. Using a modified weight­drop device, adult male Sprague­Dawley rats (weight, 350­375 g) were subjected to TBI. Phosphorylated gap junction protein levels and LC3­â…¡ levels were quantified using western blot analysis. The spatial distribution of immunoreactivity for phosphorylated connexin 43 (p­CX43) and LC3­â…¡ was analyzed by immunofluorescence. The results showed that p­CX43 expression in the hippocampus reached a maximum level 6 h following injury. In addition, the immunoreactivity of p­CX43 was localized in the astrocytes surrounding pyramidal neurons. The LC3­â…¡ protein content remained at high levels 24 h following injury. Double immunolabeling demonstrated that LC3­II dots colocalized with the hippocampus pyramidal neurons. Furthermore, inhibition of p­CX43 reduced TBI­induced autophagy, according to western blot analysis. As astrocytic gap junction coupling is affected in various forms of brain injury, the results suggest that point gap junctions/connexins are important regulators of autophagy in the hippocampal neurons following TBI.