Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi regulate amino acid metabolism, phytohormones and glycolysis pathway to promote the growth of Suaeda salsa under combined Cd and NaCl stresses.

The use of halophytes in conjunction with arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi has been found to enhance the removal efficacy of heavy metals and salts in heavy metals contaminated saline soil. The mechanisms of AM fungi on promoting halophyte growth and regulating metabolism remain unclear. In this study, combinations of 0 g kg-1 NaCl and 3 mg kg-1 Cd (S0Cd3), 6 g kg-1 NaCl and 3 mg kg-1 Cd (S6Cd3), and 12 g kg-1 NaCl and 3 mg kg-1 Cd (S12Cd3) were employed to explore the impact of Funneliformis mosseae on the growth and metabolism of Suaeda salsa. The results showed that AM fungi increased the biomass and the P, K+, Ca2+, and Mg2+ accumulations, reduced the Cd and Na+ concentrations in S0Cd3 and S6Cd3, and increased the Cd concentrations in S12Cd3. AM fungi inoculation reduced the Cd and Na+ transfer factors and increased the Cd and Na+ accumulations in S6Cd3. The metabolomics of S6Cd3 showed that AM fungi upregulated the expression of 5-hydroxy-L-tryptophan and 3-indoleacid acid in tryptophan metabolism, potentially acting as crucial antioxidants enabling plants to actively cope with abiotic stresses. AM fungi upregulated the expression of arbutin in glycolysis process, enhancing the plants' osmoregulation capacity. AM fungi upregulated the expression of 2-hydroxycinnamic acid in phenylalanine metabolism and dopaquinone in tyrosine metabolism. These two metabolites help effectively remove reactive oxygen species. Correspondingly, AM fungi decreased MDA content and increased soluble sugar content. These results indicate that AM fungi improve the stress resistance of S. salsa by increasing nutrient uptake and regulating physiological and metabolic changes.

Unravelling the halophyte Suaeda maritima as an efficient candidate for phytostabilization of cadmium and lead: Implications from physiological, ionomic, and metabolomic responses.

Cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) are among the most toxic heavy metals affecting human health and crop yield. Suaeda maritima (L.) Dumort is an obligate halophyte that is well adapted to saline soil. The inbuilt salinity tolerance mechanisms of halophytes help them to survive in heavy metal-contaminated rhizospheric soil. In the present study, growth and ionomic responses, reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation, modulations of phytochelatins, antioxidative defense, and metabolomic responses were studied in S. maritima imposed to Cd and Pb stresses with an aim to elucidate Cd and Pb tolerance mechanisms and phytoremediation potential of this halophyte. Our results showed a reduction of biomass in S. maritima, which may serve as an energy conservation strategy for survival under heavy metal stress. The increased accumulation of ROS with concomitant higher expression of various antioxidative enzymes suggests the efficient scavenging of ROS. The metabolite profiling revealed significant up-regulation of sugars, sugar alcohols, amino acids, polyphenols, and organic acids under Cd and Pb stresses suggesting their possible role in osmotic balance, ionic homeostasis, ROS scavenging, and signal transduction for stress tolerance. In S. maritima, the translocation factors (Tf) are <1 in both Cd and Pb treatments, which indicates that this halophyte has high phytostabilization potential for Cd and Pb in roots and through restricted translocation of heavy metal ions to the aboveground part. The findings of this study offer comprehensive information on Cd and Pb tolerance mechanisms in S. maritima and suggest that this halophyte can detoxify the HMs through physiological, ionic, antioxidative, and metabolic regulations.

SOS1 tonoplast neo-localization and the RGG protein SALTY are important in the extreme salinity tolerance of Salicornia bigelovii.

The identification of genes involved in salinity tolerance has primarily focused on model plants and crops. However, plants naturally adapted to highly saline environments offer valuable insights into tolerance to extreme salinity. Salicornia plants grow in coastal salt marshes, stimulated by NaCl. To understand this tolerance, we generated genome sequences of two Salicornia species and analyzed the transcriptomic and proteomic responses of Salicornia bigelovii to NaCl. Subcellular membrane proteomes reveal that SbiSOS1, a homolog of the well-known SALT-OVERLY-SENSITIVE 1 (SOS1) protein, appears to localize to the tonoplast, consistent with subcellular localization assays in tobacco. This neo-localized protein can pump Na+ into the vacuole, preventing toxicity in the cytosol. We further identify 11 proteins of interest, of which SbiSALTY, substantially improves yeast growth on saline media. Structural characterization using NMR identified it as an intrinsically disordered protein, localizing to the endoplasmic reticulum in planta, where it can interact with ribosomes and RNA, stabilizing or protecting them during salt stress.

The toxicity of selenium and mercury in Suaeda salsa after 7-days exposure.

Mercury is one of the major pollutants in the ocean, selenium causes toxicity beyond a certain limit, but there are few comparative toxic studies between them in halophytes. The study was to investigate the toxic effects of selenium (Se4+) and mercury (Hg2+) in halophyte Suaeda salsa at the level of genes, proteins and metabolites after exposure for 7 days. By integrating the results of proteomics and metabolomics, the pathway changed under different treatments were revealed. In Se4+-treated group, the changed 3 proteins and 10 metabolites participated in the process of substance metabolism (amino acid, pyrimidine), citrate cycle, pentose phosphate pathway, photosynthesis, energy, and protein biosynthesis. In Hg2+-treated group, the changed 10 proteins and 10 metabolites were related to photosynthesis, glycolysis, substance metabolism (cysteine and methionine, amino acid, pyrimidine), ATP synthesis and binding, tolerance, sugar-phosphatase activity, and citrate cycle. In Se4++ Hg2+-treated group, the changed 5 proteins an 12 metabolites involved in stress defence, iron ion binding, mitochondrial respiratory chain, structural constituent of ribosome, citrate cycle, and amino acid metabolism. Furthermore, the separate and combined selenium and mercury both inhibited growth of S. salsa, enhanced activity of antioxidant enzymes (superoxide dismutase, peroxidase and catalase), and disturbed osmotic regulation through the genes of choline monoxygenase and betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase. Our experiments also showed selenium could induce synergistic effects in S. salsa. In all, we successfully characterized the effects of selenium and mercury in plant which was helpful to evaluate the toxicity and interaction of marine pollutants.

Effect of arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis on ion homeostasis and salt tolerance-related gene expression in halophyte Suaeda salsa under salt treatments.

Halophytes can remove large quantities of salts from saline soils, so their importance in ecology has received increasing attention. Preliminary studies have shown that arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi can improve the salt tolerance of halophytes. However, few studies have focused on the molecular mechanisms and effects of AM fungi in halophytes under different salt conditions. A pot experiment was carried out to investigate the effects of Funneliformis mosseae inoculation on growth, nutrient uptake, ion homeostasis and the expression of salt tolerance-related genes in Suaeda salsa under 0, 100, 200 and 400 mM NaCl. The results showed that F. mosseae promoted the growth of S. salsa and increased the shoot Ca2+ and Mg2+ concentrations under no-salt condition and high-salt condition. In addition, AM fungi increased the K+ concentration and maintained a high K+/Na+ ratio at 400 mM NaCl, while AM fungi decreased the K+ concentration and reduced the K+/Na+ ratio at 0 mM NaCl. AM fungi downregulated the expression of SsNHX1 in shoots and the expression of SsSOS1 in roots at 400 mM NaCl. These effects may decrease the compartmentation of Na+ into leaf vacuoles and restrict Na+ transport from roots to shoots, leading to an increase in root Na+ concentration. AM symbiosis upregulated the expression of SsSOS1 in shoots and downregulated the expression of SsSOS1 and SsNHX1 in roots at 100 mM NaCl. However, regulation of the genes (SsNHX1, SsSOS, SsVHA-B and SsPIP) was not significantly different with AM symbiosis at 0 mM or 200 mM NaCl. The results revealed that AM symbiosis might induce diverse modulation strategies in S. salsa, depending on external Na+ concentrations. These findings suggest that AM fungi may play significant ecological roles in the phytoremediation of salinized ecosystems.

High gene flow maintains genetic diversity following selection for high EPSPS copy number in the weed kochia (Amaranthaceae).

Kochia, a major weed species, has evolved resistance to four herbicide modes of action. Herbicide resistance appears to spread quickly, which could result in diminished standing genetic variation, reducing the ability of populations to adapt further. Here we used double digest restriction enzyme associated sequencing to determine the level of gene flow among kochia populations and whether selection for glyphosate resistance reduces genetic variation. Canadian Prairie populations show little to no genetic differentiation (FST = 0.01) and no correlation between genetic and geographic distance (r2 = - 0.02 p = 0.56), indicating high gene flow and no population structure. There is some evidence that kochia populations are genetically depauperate compared to other weed species, but genetic diversity did not differ between glyphosate susceptible and resistant populations or individuals. The inbreeding coefficients suggest there are 23% fewer heterozygotes in these populations than expected with random mating, and no variation was found within the chloroplast. These results indicate that any alleles for herbicide resistance can be expected to spread quickly through kochia populations, but there is little evidence this spread will reduce the species' genetic variation or limit the species' ability to respond to further selection pressure.

Influences of Irrigation with Diluted Seawater and Fertilization on Growth, Seed Yield and Nutrients Status of Salicornia Plants.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: The feasibility of cultivating seawater depends on finding a germplasm resistance to salinity and developing appropriate agricultural techniques. Halophytes have the requisite salt tolerance and produce high biomass or seed yields under seawater irrigation. One of the promising halophytes is Salicornia. The purpose of this study was to evaluate production of Salicornia (Salicornia bigelovii L.) under irrigation with high saline water and influence of fertilization on growth, yield and nutrient content. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A field experiment was conducted during 2018-2019. Four irrigation treatments (100% seawater, 50% seawater, 25% seawater and 100% well water) were running twice per week. A six fertilization treatments (control, algae extract as foliar and soil applications, NPK (20-20-20) alone or with micronutrients fertilizer (Fe+Mn+Zn+Cu in chelated form) and NPK+micronutrients fertilizer+algae extract were applied in combined with the four irrigation treatments. RESULTS: The highest mean values of growth and seed yield of Salicornia plants were obtained by 50% dilution of seawater treatment. The treatment of algae extract soil with NPK+micronutrients fertilizers were produced the highest relative increase percentages in growth and yield. The combined treatment of NPK+micronutrients fertilizer+algae extract soil treatment in combined with 50% diluted of seawater was recorded the highest values of all parameters. CONCLUSION: Soil applied of algae extract as a bio-fertilizer with NPK+micronutrients fertilizers gave the highest increasing in Salicornia growth, yield and contents of nutrients, especially at 25 and 50% seawater dilution treatments.

Salinity relief aniline induced oxidative stress in Suaeda salsa: Activities of antioxidative enzyme and EPR measurements.

Wastewater from printing and dyeing processes often contains aniline and high salinity, which are hazardous to aquatic species. Glycophytic plants cannot survive under high-salinity conditions, whereas halophytes grow well in such an environment. In this study, we investigated the influence of NaCl on the antioxidant level in Suaeda salsa affected by aniline stress. The seedlings showed various growth toxicity effects under different concentrations of aniline. The results showed that the effect of the aniline was more severe for the root growth compared to that for the shoot growth. Aniline exposure significantly increased the total free radicals and ·OH radicals in the plants. Suaeda salsa exposure to aniline caused oxidative stress by altering the superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and peroxidase (POD) activity, which resulted in the overproduction of H2O2 and the inducement of lipid peroxidation. Analysis revealed that the malondialdehyde (MDA) content was enhanced after aniline exposure and that the chlorophyll content was significantly decreased. The results showed that aniline induced the production of free radicals and reactive oxygen species (ROS), and changed the antioxidant defense system. This ultimately resulted in oxidative damage in S. salsa; however, it was found that moderate salinity could mitigate the effects. In conclusion, salinity may alleviate the growth inhibition caused by aniline by regulating the antioxidant capacity of S. salsa.

Heavy metal tolerance and potential for remediation of heavy metal-contaminated saline soils for the euhalophyte Suaeda salsa.

Due to irrigation practices and industrial pollution, large areas of the lands in the world are simultaneously affected by salinity and heavy metal contamination. It has been considered that halophytes have adapted to salinity, and can be used to remediate heavy metal-contaminated saline soils. Suaeda salsa L. (S. salsa) is a high salt-resistance plant, which can efficiently absorb and accumulate salt and toxic metals from saline soils, suggesting that this may be potential plant species that can be used for the restoration of saline soils contaminated with heavy metals. The present brief review sheds light on the characteristics of S. salsa in the uptake and accumulation of high levels of heavy metals. Furthermore, the physiological and molecular mechanisms for heavy metal tolerance were highlighted. The potential values of S. salsa in the remediation of saline soils were also summarized.

[Seed germination, bud growth and heavy-metal accumulation of Suaeda salsa].

Nickel and copper, as high toxic heavy metals (HMs), are the most serious contaminants in Jinchuan mining area, China. In this paper, the influence of combined HMs stress on the growth of widespread plant-S. salsa has been studied. The stress gradient of combined Ni-Cu was set based on the local environment and pre-experiment. Seed germination, growth, physiological characteristics of S. salsa were investigated by the control test, and its heavy metal bioaccumulation capacity was investigated by samples collected from field platform. The growth of S. salsa was promoted at lower concentration (≤40 mg/L) and inhibited at higher concentration (≥80 mg/L) under the single HMs stress and combined HMs stress (Cu20/Ni20). The malondialdehyde (MDA) content was increased with increasing concentration, and the soluble protein and free proline content in stress group were higher than that of in control group. Under single HMs stress, the peroxidase (POD) activity increased with increasing concentration; while under combined HMs stress, the POD activity increased initially and then reduced. Cu320 and Ni320 combined HMs stress inhibited the growth of S. salsa at all concentrations. The average translocation factors (TF) of S. salsa were greater than 1.00, and higher in leaves compared to stems. The results of bio-concentration factors (BCF) of S. salsa show that BCF of leaves were larger than that of roots and stems. At lower concentration, the combined HMs stress promoted the growth of S. salsa in comparison to single HMs stress, however, opposite results were obtained at higher concentration. Overall, S. salsa showed high tolerance to Cu and Ni and stronger capabilities of HMs uptake and translocation, and therefore, it can be used as an alternative plant for the bioremediation of heavy metal pollution in mining area.

Sarcocornia fruticosa photosynthetic response to short-term extreme temperature events in combination with optimal and sub-optimal salinity concentrations.

Climate change would increase frequency and intensity of extreme events as heat and cold waves. There is a lack of studies that consider the co-occurrence of these waves with other abiotic factors relevant on a climate change scenario as salinity. Therefore, it could be interesting to improve our knowledge about the effects that this co-occurrence could have in different species due to the species specific effect of the photosynthesis tolerance to extreme temperatures. A controlled condition experiment was performed using the salt marsh species Sarcocornia perrnis with eight experimental blocks combining temperature ranges (40-28/22-15/13-5 °C) and salinity concentration on the growth solution (171/1050 mM NaCl). After 3 days of treatment, gas exchange, chlorophyll a fluorescence, pigment profile and water state measurement were applied. Photosynthetic machinery function of this perennial species decreased on for both high and low temperature range. Nevertheless, at 13-5 °C the effect of the salinity was mainly due to diffusion limitations more than to damage on the photosystems. At 40-28 °C, in presence of optimal salinity S. fruticosa was not altered overall. However, high temperatures in combination with high salinity reduced the photosynthetic capacity mainly by reducing the efficiency of the electron transport chain.

Heteromorphic seeds of coastal halophytes Arthrocnemum macrostachyum and A. indicum display differential patterns of hydrogen peroxide accumulation, lipid peroxidation and antioxidant activities under increasing salinity.

Reactive oxygen species homeostasis during germination of heteromorphic seeds is not fully understood. This study elucidates changes in levels of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), malondialdehyde (MDA) and enzymatic antioxidants in heteromorphic seeds of contrasting congeneric halophytes Arthrocnemum macrostachyum (C3 perennial) and A. indicum (C4 perennial) during germination under increasing salinity. There was no dormancy in A. macrostachyum (black and brown) and A. indicum (large and small) seeds. Seeds of A. macrostachyum displayed greater salinity tolerance compared to A. indicum seeds. Under non-saline conditions, large A. indicum seeds and brown A. macrostachyum seeds showed slightly higher germination than their respective counterparts. H2O2 content of black compared to brown A. macrostachyum seeds increased with salinity and that of small compared to large A. indicum seeds increased only in 400 mM NaCl. High catalase and ascorbate peroxidase with constitutive superoxide dismutase levels coincided with unaltered MDA in black A. macrostachyum seeds under salinity. Whereas, there was a decline in most antioxidant enzyme activities alongside low/unchanged H2O2 in the brown A. macrostachyum seeds under salinity. Unaltered H2O2 and MDA with low/unchanged antioxidant enzyme activities in large A. indicum seeds under salinity occurred. Unchanged enzyme activities alongside a rise in H2O2 and MDA levels were observed in the small A. indicum seeds under salinity. These data hence highlight differential H2O2 homeostasis strategies in the heteromorphic seeds of the test species.

Salinity-induced alterations in plant growth, antioxidant enzyme activities, and lead transportation and accumulation in Suaeda salsa: implications for phytoremediation.

Halophytes have been considered promising candidates for accumulating heavy metals from saline soils; however, little information has been given on plant physiological responses and heavy metal transportation and accumulation in halophytes that grow in heavy metal-polluted saline soils. This study hypothesized that salinity or heavy metals could induce alterations in plant growth, antioxidant enzyme activities and accumulation and transportation of heavy metals or sodium (Na) in Suaeda salsa. Pot experiments were conducted to test the above hypothesis. Lead (Pb) was selected as the representative heavy metal, and NaCl was added to simulate the Pb-polluted saline soil. The results showed that 0.5% NaCl addition alleviated the inhibition of plant growth under moderate Pb stress (35 and 100 mg kg-1 Pb levels), while the phytotoxicity on plants was magnified by 1.0% NaCl addition. NaCl weakened the oxidative stress in Pb-treated plants by increasing the activity levels of antioxidative enzymes (dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD) and catalase (CAT)). At all Pb levels, as the NaCl addition increased, significant increases were observed in the concentration of Na. The 100 mg kg-1 Pb induced a greater increase in Na concentrations than the 35 mg kg-1 Pb did, while the latter induced a greater increase than the 300 mg kg-1 Pb did. NaCl improved Pb translocation factor and its accumulation in Suaeda salsa under Pb stress, indicating that NaCl improves Pb uptake and translocation from roots to shoots and enhances the phytoextraction of Pb. Compared with the 0.1% NaCl treatment, the 0.5 and 1.0% NaCl treatments increased the concentrations of bioavailable Pb in the rhizosphere by 15.0-19.2 and 28.6-35.1%, respectively, indicating the contribution of salinity in producing more available Pb for plant uptake. Moderate salinity may be profitable for Pb transportation and accumulation in plants when there are positive effects on plant growth, antioxidant enzyme activities and Pb availability. These facts suggest that the halophyte Suaeda salsa may be exploited to remediate heavy metal-contaminated saline soils.

Boron tolerance and accumulation potential of four salt-tolerant plant species.

Boron (B) is an essential element for plants, but excess B is phytotoxic. Since excess B often occurs along with high salinity in the environment, the purposes of the experiments are to screen plants that tolerate both excess B and high salinity for the remediation of B-contaminated saline water or soils. Here we tested the capacities of B tolerance and accumulation of four salt-tolerant plant species, Tripolium pannonicum, Suaeda glauca, Iris wilsonii, and Puccinellia tenuiflora using hydroponic culture systems, and compared their potential for application in phytoremediation. The maximum B supply concentrations for the survival of T. pannonicum, S. glauca, I. wilsonii, and P. tenuiflora are 40, 250, 700, and 300 mg/L, respectively. The maximum B concentrations in the shoot tissue of these plants are 0.45, 2.48, 15.21, and 8.03 mg/g DW, and in the root are 0.23, 0.70, 6.69, and 2.63 mg/g DW, respectively. Our results suggest that S. glauca, I. wilsonii, and P. tenuiflora are capable of tolerating and accumulating high levels of B, and I. wilsonii is a most promising candidate for the remediation of B-contaminated sites. This study will provide evidence in support of our future pilot studies (e.g., constructed wetlands) on the phytoremediation of B-contaminated water and soil.

A global perspective on the biology, impact and management of Chenopodium album and Chenopodium murale: two troublesome agricultural and environmental weeds.

Chenopodium album and C. murale are cosmopolitan, annual weed species of notable economic importance. Their unique biological features, including high reproductive capacity, seed dormancy, high persistence in the soil seed bank, the ability to germinate and grow under a wide range of environmental conditions and abiotic stress tolerance, help these species to infest diverse cropping systems. C. album and C. murale grow tall and absorb nutrients very efficiently. Both these species are allelopathic in nature and, thus, suppress the germination and growth of native vegetation and/or crop plants. These weed species infest many agronomic and horticultural crops and may cause > 90% loss in crop yields. C. album is more problematic than C. murale as the former is more widespread and infests more number of crops, and it also acts as an alternate host of several crop pests. Different cultural and mechanical methods have been used to control these weed species with varying degrees of success depending upon the cropping systems and weed infestation levels. Similarly, allelopathy and biological control have also shown some potential, especially in controlling C. album. Several herbicides have been successfully used to control these species, but the evolution of wide-scale herbicide resistance in C. album has limited the efficacy of chemical control. However, the use of alternative herbicides in rotation and the integration of chemicals and biologically based control methods may provide a sustainable control of C. album and C. murale.

Bacterial communities of three plant species from Pb-Zn contaminated sites and plant-growth promotional benefits of endophytic Microbacterium sp. (strain BXGe71).

The endophytic bacterial community of two hyperaccumulators (Arabis alpine, Dysphania ambrosioides) and Veronica ciliate was investigated by Illumina sequencing technology. In addition, the culturable endophytic bacteria (EB) were isolated and their plant-growth promotion capabilities were studied. A dataset consisting of 221,075 filtered high-quality and classifiable unique 16S rDNA gene tags, and an average of 36,846 tags with a mean length of 464-bp for each sample was generated. In total, 10801 different operational taxonomic units (OTUs) were detected, belonging to 18 bacterial phyla, 41 classes, 91 orders, 135 families, and 215 genera. Pseudomonas was the most dominant genus in both shoots and roots of the two hyperaccumulators, making up 81.56% and 81.13%, 41.60% and 77.06% of the total number of OTUs, respectively. However, both Chao 1 and Shannon indices of EB of the two hyperaccumulators were significantly lower than those of V. ciliate (P <. 05), except the Shannon index of D. ambrosioides shoots. The endophytic bacterial community of roots and shoots of A. alpine showed greater similarity with that of D. ambrosioides roots (12 km away), and clustered to one group in dendrogram, in clear contrast to that of V. ciliate, which grew closer to A. alpine (60 m away). Combining results of soil and plant analyses, we suggest that the soil properties, especially heavy metal concentration, may influence the plants endophytic bacterial community composition. Pot experiments showed that the strain BXGe71 (Microbacterium sp.) from A. alpine significantly enhanced host plants' growth under multi-heavy metal (HM) stress (P < .05, t-test).

Mercury mobility and effects in the salt-marsh plant Halimione portulacoides: Uptake, transport, and toxicity and tolerance mechanisms.

The plant Halimione portulacoides, an abundant species widely distributed in temperate salt-marshes, has been previously assessed as bioindicator and biomonitor of mercury contamination in these ecosystems. The present study aims to assess uptake and distribution of total mercury (THg) and methylmercury (MMHg) within H. portulacoides, potential mercury release by volatilization through leaves, and toxicity and tolerance mechanisms by investigating plant photochemical responses. Stem cuttings of H. portulacoides were collected from a salt-marsh within the Tagus estuary natural protected area, and grown under hydroponic conditions. After root development, plants were exposed to 199HgCl2 and CH3201HgCl, and sampled at specific times (0, 1, 2, 4, 24, 72, 120, 168 (7 days) and 432 h (18 days)). After exposure, roots, stems and leaves were analysed for total 199Hg (T199Hg) and MM201Hg content. Photobiology parameters, namely efficiency and photoprotection capacity, were measured in leaves. Both THg and MMHg were incorporated into the plant root system, stems and leaves, with roots showing much higher levels of both isotope enriched spikes than the other plant tissues. Presence of both mercury isotopes in the stems and leaves and high significant correlations found between roots and stems, and stems and leaves, for both THg and MMHg concentrations, indicate Hg translocation between the roots and above-ground organs. Long-term uptake in stems and leaves, leading to higher Hg content, was more influenced by temperature and radiation than short-term uptake. However, the relatively low levels of both THg and MMHg in the aerial parts of the plant, which were influenced by temperature and radiation, support the possibility of mercury release by stems and leaves, probably via stomata aperture, as a way to eliminate toxic mercury. Regarding photochemical responses, few differences between control and exposed plants were observed, indicating high tolerance of this salt marsh plant to THg and MMHg.

Zinc oxide nanoparticles phytotoxicity on halophyte from genus Salicornia.

This study deals with the effect of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) on halophyte from the genus Salicornia. The presence of ZnO nanoparticles (100 and 1000 mg/L) in the solid culture medium resulted in the negative effects on plant growth in the concentration-dependent manner. The shoot length of plant cultivated with 1000 mg/L ZnO NPs decreased by more than 50% compared to non-treated plants. The phytotoxicity was associated with the release of free zinc(II) ions, which was determined by atomic absorption spectroscopy and fluorescence microscopy. Another mechanism involved in ZnO NPs phytotoxicity was closely connected with generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which was accompanied by changes in activities and amounts of antioxidant enzymes. Histochemical evaluation showed that ROS were present also in the shoot of plant, which was not in direct contact with NPs. The reduction of activity and amount of antioxidant enzymes such as gamma-ESC, GR, SOD, PER, APX and higher concentration of ROS lead to lipid peroxidation, the latter being almost 3 times higher for the plant treated with 1000 mg/L NPs compared to control. The misbalance in zinc homeostasis and creation of ROS with subsequent oxidative stress led to the initiation of processes of programmed cell death, which was demonstrated by the loss of mitochondrial potential and increase of intracellular calcium (II) ions. Despite halophytes exhibit higher stress resistance than glycophytes, they are prone to negative changes if incubated in the environment containing ZnO nanoparticles.

Bacterial microbiome of root-associated endophytes of Salicornia europaea in correspondence to different levels of salinity.

The halophytes have evolved several strategies to survive in saline environments; however, an additional support from their associated microbiota helps combat adverse conditions. Hence, our driving interests to investigate the endophytic bacterial community richness, diversity, and composition associated to roots of Salicornia europaea from two test sites with different origins of soil salinity. We assumed that salinity will have a negative effect on the diversity of endophytes but simultaneously will permit the high occurrence of halophylic bacteria. Further, to establish the role of the host and its external environment in determining the endophytic diversity, we analyzed the physico-chemical parameters of root zone soil and the concentration of salt ions in the plant roots. The results based on the Miseq Illumina sequencing approach revealed a higher number of endophytic bacterial OTUs at naturally saline test site with a higher level of soil salinity. Proteobacteria and Bacteriodetes were the dominant endophytic phyla at both analyzed sites; additionally, the high occurrence of Planctomycetes and Acidobacteria at more saline site and the occurrence of Firmicutes, Actinobacteria, and Chloroflexi at less saline site were recorded. The salinity in the root zone soil was crucial in structuring the endophytic community of S. europaea, and the significant prevalence of representatives from the phyla Deltaproteobacteria, Acidobacteria, Caldithrix, Fibrobacteres, and Verrucomicrobia at the more saline test site suggest domination of halophylic bacteria with potential role in mitigation of salt stress of halophytes.

Ectopic expression of SsPETE2, a plastocyanin from Suaeda salsa, improves plant tolerance to oxidative stress.

Accumulating evidence indicates that plant plastocyanin is involved in copper homeostasis, yet the physiological relevance remains elusive. In this study, we found that a plastocyanin gene (SsPETE2) from euhalophyte Suaeda salsa possessed a novel antioxidant function, which was associated with the copper-chelating activity of SsPETE2. In S. salsa, expression of SsPETE2 increased in response to oxidative stress and ectopic expression of SsPETE2 in Arabidopsis enhanced the antioxidant ability of the transgenic plants. SsPETE2 bound Cu ion and alleviated formation of hydroxyl radicals in vitro. Accordingly, SsPETE2 expression lowered the free Cu content that was associated with reduced H2O2 level under oxidative stress. Arabidopsis pete1 and pete2 mutants showed ROS-sensitive phenotypes that could be restored by expression of SsPETE2 or AtPETEs. In addition, SsPETE2-expressing plants exhibited more potent tolerance to oxidative stress than plants overexpressing AtPETEs, likely owing to the stronger copper-binding activity of SsPETE2 than AtPETEs. Taken together, these results demonstrated that plant PETEs play a novel role in oxidative stress tolerance by regulating Cu homeostasis under stress conditions, and SsPETE2, as an efficient copper-chelating PETE, potentially could be used in crop genetic engineering.